Iron Electrocoagulation Research Articles

Porous Iron Electrodes Reduce Energy Consumption During Electrocoagulation of a Virus Surrogate: Insights into Performance Enhancements Using Three-Dimensional Neutron Computed Tomography.

Electrocoagulation has attracted significant attention as an alternative to conventional chemical coagulation because it is capable of removing a wide range of contaminants and has several potential advantages. In contrast to most electrocoagulation research that has been performed with nonporous electrodes, in this study, we demonstrate energy-efficient iron electrocoagulation using porous electrodes. In batch operation, investigation of the external pore structures through optical microscopy suggested that a low porosity electrode with sparse connection between pores may lead to mechanical failure of the pore network during electrolysis, whereas a high porosity electrode is vulnerable to pore clogging. Electrodes with intermediate porosity, instead, only suffered a moderate surface deposition, leading to electrical energy savings of 21% and 36% in terms of electrocoagulant delivery and unit log virus reduction, respectively. Neutron computed tomography revealed the critical role of electrode porosity in utilizing the electrode's internal surface for electrodissolution and effective delivery of electrocoagulant to the bulk. Energy savings of up to 88% in short-term operation were obtained with porous electrodes in a continuous flow-through system. Further investigation on the impact of current density and porosity in long-term operation is desired as well as the capital cost of porous electrodes.

Optimization of iron electrocoagulation parameters for enhanced turbidity and chemical oxygen demand removal from laundry greywater

This study explores the optimization of iron electrocoagulation for treating laundry greywater, which accounts for up to 38% of domestic greywater. Characterized by high concentrations of surfactants, detergents, and suspended solids, laundry greywater presents complex challenges for treatment processes, posing significant environmental and health risks. Utilizing response surface methodology (RSM), this research developed a second-order polynomial regression model focused on key operational parameters such as the area-to-volume ratio (A/V), current density, electrolysis time, and settling time. Optimal treatment conditions were identified: an A/V ratio of 30 m2/m3, a current density of 10 mA/cm2, an electrolysis duration of 50 min, and a settlement period of 12 h. Under these conditions, exceptional treatment outcomes were achieved, with turbidity removal reaching 94.26% and COD removal at 99.64%. The model exhibited high effectiveness for turbidity removal, with an R2 value of 94.16%, and moderate effectiveness for COD removal, with an R2 value of 75.90%. The interaction between the A/V ratio and electrolysis time particularly underscored their critical role in electrocoagulation system design. Moreover, these results highlight the potential for optimizing electrocoagulation parameters to adapt to daily fluctuations in greywater production and meet specific household reuse needs, such as toilet flushing. This tailored approach aims to maximize contaminant separation and coagulant efficiency, balance energy use and operational costs, and contribute to sustainable water management.

Study on COD and color removal efficiency in textile dyeing wastewater by iron electro-coagulation technology combined with persulfate

Electrocoagulation (EC) is an attractive method for treating many types of wastewater due to its advantages. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of persulfate addition on the efficiency of textile wastewater treatment through the removal percentage of COD and color parameters. Persulfate is proven to significantly enhance the rate and efficiency of pollutant removal in textile wastewater. The removal percentage of COD could reach 91.33 ± 1.23% and 97.99% ± 0.52% was the highest removal percentage of the color parameter at the optimal reaction parameters. The effluent concentration meets the standards according to Vietnam national technical regulation on textile industry wastewater. By using persulfate, the COD and color removal efficiency increased by 17.53 ± 2.69% and 8.81 ± 0.91%, respectively, compared to the single electrocoagulation process. The amount of sludge generated in the system is 0.542 ± 0.0357 kg/m3, significantly reduced compared to the flocculation process of 0.875 ± 0.0295 kg/m3.

Transformation of dissolved organic matter during groundwater arsenite removal using air cathode iron electrocoagulation

Dissolve organic matters (DOM) usually showed negative effect on the removal of inorganic arsenic (As) in groundwater by electrochemical approaches, yet which parts of sub-component within DOM played the role was lack of evidence. Herein, we investigated the effects of land-source humic-like acid (HA) on groundwater As(III) removal using air cathode iron electrocoagulation, based on the parallel factor analysis of three-dimensional excitation–emission matrix and statistical methods. Our results showed that the land-source HA contained five kinds of components and all components presented significantly negative correlations with the removal of both As(III) and As(V). However, the high aromatic fulvic-like acid and low aromatic humic-like acid components of land-source HA presented the opposite correlations with the concentration of As(III) during the reaction. The high aromaticity fulvic-like components of land-source HA (Sigma-Aldrich HA, SAHA) produced during the reaction facilitated the oxidation of As(III) due to its high electron transfer capacities and good solubility in wide pH range, but the low aromaticity humic-like ones worked against the oxidation of As(III). Our findings offered the novel insights for the flexible activities of DOM in electron Fenton system.

Embedding Fe(0) electrocoagulation in a biologically active As(III) oxidising filter bed

Long-term consumption of groundwater containing elevated levels of arsenic (As) can have severe health consequences, including cancer. To effectively remove As, conventional treatment technologies require expensive chemical oxidants to oxidise neutral arsenite (As(III)) in groundwater to negatively charged arsenate (As(V)), which is more easily removed. Rapid sand filter beds used in conventional aeration-filtration to treat anaerobic groundwater can naturally oxidise As(III) through biological processes but require an additional step to remove the generated As(V), adding complexity and cost. This study introduces a novel approach where As(V), produced through biological As(III) oxidation in a sand filter, is effectively removed within the same filter by embedding and operating an iron electrocoagulation (FeEC) system inside the filter. Operating FeEC within the biological filter achieved higher As(III) removal (81 %) compared to operating FeEC in the filter supernatant (67 %). This performance was similar to an analogous embedded-FeEC system treating As(V)-contaminated water (85 %), confirming the benefits of incorporating FeEC in a biological bed for comparable As(III) and As(V) removal. However, operating FeEC in the sand matrix consumed more energy (14 Wh/m3) compared to FeEC operated in a water matrix (7 Wh/m3). The efficiency of As removal increased and energy requirements decreased in such embedded-FeEC systems by deep-bed infiltration of Fe(III)-precipitates, which can be controlled by adjusting flow rate and pH. This study is one of the first to demonstrate the feasibility of embedding FeEC systems in sand filters for groundwater arsenic removal. Such systems capitalise on biological As(III) oxidation in aeration-filtration, effectively eliminating As(V) within the same setup without the need for chemicals or major modifications.

Iron electrocoagulation activated peracetic acid for efficient degradation of sulfamethoxazole

Activation of peracetic acid (PAA) by Fe species is the attractive advanced oxidation processes for the removal of antibiotics. However, achieving optimal performance in many of these processes often requires acidic pH conditions, which impedes practical application. In this study, an iron electrocoagulation (EC) system was devised to for activate PAA and oxidate sulfamethoxazole (SMX). Under optimal conditions, the degradation of SMX by the EC/PAA system reached 96.2% within 15 min, with a pseudo-first order reaction constant of 0.241 min−1, but only consuming 0.044 kW·h/m3. Interestingly, the EC/PAA system showed a high buffering capacity in the initial pH range of 4–8 to maintain the final pH of around 7. The quenching experiments revealed both free radical and non-free radical pathways involved in the oxidation of SMX in the EC/PAA system. Specifically, the active species, including •OH, organic radicals (CH3COO• and CH3COOO•) and 1O2, contribute 86.77%, 5.53% and 7.70%, respectively. These findings suggest that the EC/PAA system has unique advantages and potential for the degradation of antibiotic organics such as SMX in aquatic environments due to its strong oxidative capacity, wide pH range and high buffering capacity.

Characterization and mechanism of p-nitrophenol removal based on modified nanoscale zero-valent iron electrocoagulation

p-Nitrophenol (PNP) is a toxic chemical and is difficult to degrade naturally when it enters the environment. It is of great importance to develop methods to remove PNP efficiently and safely. Electrocoagulation has been widely used for the removal of PNP, but challenges remain in the improvement of anode materials and solid-liquid separation of PNP-containing precipitates. In this work, the characteristics and mechanism of activated biochar (ABC) and sulfide dual-modified nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) electrocoagulation anode for the removal of PNP were systematically investigated. The synergistic effect of magnetic iron oxide generated by zero-valent iron oxidation and electrochemical oxidation technique was used to rapidly reduce the PNP concentration for water purification. The results showed that the modified nZVI anode had higher electrocoagulation activity than the iron sheet anode, and the S-nZNI/ABC anode had the highest PNP removal efficiency. The main component of the precipitate after the reaction was Fe3O4, which facilitated the magnetic solid-liquid separation of the precipitate and scum. The seed germination test confirmed that the electrocoagulation material synthesized in this work had almost no adverse effects on the ecological environment. The electrocoagulation process had good degradation performance for PNP, which could significantly attenuate the ecotoxicity of PNP in the aquatic environment and thus improve the water quality. It is expected that this work may provide design references and ideas for the efficient degradation of PNP and the application of electrocoagulation.

Recovery of platinum group metals from aqueous solution by iron-electrocoagulation

The recovery of platinum group-metals (PGMs) has attracted increasing attention owing to their scarcity, economic importance, and criticality. Traditional techniques for PGM recovery often involve the use of toxic reagents and require strict extraction conditions, posing challenges for their implementation in complex environments. In this paper, a novel method based on iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) is proposed for PGM extraction. The Fe-EC process generates iron (hydr)oxide flocs in situ, which spontaneously and uniformly adsorb and reduce PGM ions. The selectivity of PGM recovery is attributed to the higher electronegativity and standard reduction potential of PGM ions compared to base metal ions. Efficient extraction of Pt, Pd, and Rh ions from aqueous solutions was achieved using Fe-EC, with extraction efficiencies of 81.26 %, 81.32 %, and 99.66 %, respectively. These results were obtained at a voltage of 2 V and residual concentrations of 0.3072, 0.0051 and 0.0049 mg L–1. TEM-EDS and XPS characterizations of the Fe-EC flocs showed that Pt, Pd, and Rh were present in the elemental form particles. The extraction performance of base metal such as Ni, Zn, Mg and Mn ions by Fe-EC was found to be poor, with minimal reduction to elemental form. Finally, the Fe-EC flocs were subjected to acid washing and filtration, resulting in the selective recovery of Pt, Pd, and Rh products with high purities of 97.43%, 97.12%, and 97.92%, respectively. This study presents a new and environmentally friendly method for the recycling of PGMs, offering a promising approach for sustainable PGM recovery.

Capture and Extraction of Gold from Aqueous Solution via the Iron Electrocoagulation Method

Gold mining from gold sources, such as natural ores, electronics, and other industrial wastes, is not yet feasible in terms of environmental costs and production efficiency. The trace quantity of Au in the aqueous solution limits its effective capture and extraction through conventional methods. Here, we report a homogeneous, spontaneous, and selective Au-capture method via iron electrocoagulation. Exhibiting a strong electronegativity that distinguishes Au from other metals, water-dispersed Au ions are readily adsorbed by in situ crystallized positively charged ferrous colloidal nuclei. This process involves no chemicals, but it can be performed using an insignificant cell voltage, 0.2 V, with an extraction efficiency of ∼100%. Interestingly, Au0 sponge flocs are obtained in the precipitate, indicating a synchronous reduction reaction. By demonstrating the success of electronic waste and gold-ore pilot tests, we suggest that this approach might be feasible for industrial use. This research opens a new path in the development of sustainable technologies for gold extraction, thereby contributing to a scalable circular economy.

Optimization of phosphorus recovery using electrochemical struvite precipitation and comparison with iron electrocoagulation system.

A batch monopolar reactor was developed for total phosphorus (TP) recovery using electrochemical struvite precipitation. This study involves the optimization of factors using response surface methodology to maximize the TP recovery. The optimal parameters for this study were found to be a pH of 8.40, a retention time of 35 min, a current density of 300 A/m2 , and an interelectrode distance of 0.5 cm, resulting in 97.3% of TP recovery and energy consumption of 2.35 kWh/m3 . A kinetic study for TP removal revealed that at optimum operating conditions, TP removal follows second-order kinetics (removal rate constant(K) = 0.0117 mg/(m2 ·min)). The system performance was compared to the performance of an iron electrocoagulation system. The composition of the precipitate obtained during the optimal runs were analyzed using X-ray diffraction and EDS analysis. X-ray diffraction analysis of the magnesium precipitate revealed the presence of struvite as the only crystalline compound. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Electrochemical struvite precipitation has the potential to recover total phosphorus from anaerobic bioreactor effluent. Optimum conditions for phosphorus recovery was found at a pH of 8.4, retention time of 35 min, current density of 300 A/m2, and interelectrode distance of 0.5 cm. The quadratic model predicted complete (100 %) TP recovery under optimized conditions, whereas 97.3 % recovery was observed under experimental conditions. TP removal under optimum conditions followed second-order rate equation (removal rate constant(K) = 0.0117 mg/(m2 ·min)). XRD analysis of the precipitate revealed struvite as the only crystalline compound.

Anoxic iron electrocoagulation automatically modulates dissolved oxygen and pH for fast reductive decomplexation and precipitation of Cu(II)-EDTA: The critical role of dissolved Fe(II).

Fe-based replacement and precipitation are promising methods for removal of copper ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Cu(II)-EDTA) but are limited by the necessity of controlling pH and dissolved oxygen. The details of the decomplexation mechanism also remain unclear. The present work investigated an anoxic iron electrocoagulation process capable of automatically modulating anoxic conditions and solution pH during exposure to air and thus promoting the rapid and thorough decomplexation of Cu(II)-EDTA. Dissolved Fe (II), rather than Fe(II)-bearing minerals, was found to be primarily responsible for the reduction of Cu(II)-EDTA to Cu(I)-EDTA and for the subsequent replacement reaction to generate free Cu(I) ions within the initial pH range of 2-7. The Cu(I) was primarily precipitated as Cu2O on the surface of green rust and magnetite as the pH was increased. The aeration of these Fe-containing precipitates released free Cu(I) ions instead of chelated Cu into solution, allowing for recycling of the Cu. This release of Cu(I) was likely induced by the pH decrease during aeration. This study provides important insights regarding the reductive decomplexation of chelated Cu(II) and the recovery of Cu via anoxic iron electrocoagulation, which is a promising green approach to recycling Cu from wastewater.

Phosphate removal by ex situ generated Fe (hydr)oxides from scrap iron electrocoagulation: the critical role of coprecipitation

The in situ produced Fe (hydr)oxides by scrap iron electrocoagulation in a prepared NaCl electrolyte is facile and low-cost materials for phosphate sequestration in wastewater.

Simultaneous In Situ Characterization of Turbulent Flocculation and Reactor Mixing Using Image Analysis and Particle Image Velocimetry in Unison

Floc characteristics, including their size distribution, mean size, and fractal dimension, are impacted by mixing intensity and duration, coagulant dosing method, dose, type, and pH. Herein, we directly employ flocs inherently generated during treatment to determine instantaneous velocity fields, which were further utilized to estimate local velocity gradients and turbulent kinetic energy dissipation (TKED) rates. This novel non-intrusive methodology, which combines particle image velocimetry (PIV) and an imagery-based sizing scheme, was examined through the characteristics of reactor mixing and flocculation from in situ measurements for conventional FeCl3 chemical coagulation and iron electrocoagulation (EC). Our first-of-its-kind procedure avoids the need to externally add artificial seeding particles for PIV analysis, automatically reducing the number of experiments, and simultaneously improves both accuracy and precision by linking fluid dynamics and particle characteristics with only a single experiment. The TKED rates estimated using flocs were largely similar with conventional artificial seeding at the early stage of flocculation when flocs were smaller. However, the new method is expected to estimate turbulence more accurately in the flocs’ microenvironment during the later stages of tapered flocculation when particle sizes are similar to dissipation eddy dimensions, especially at high particle concentrations (i.e., highly turbid waters). Measured size distributions, mean sizes, and fractal dimensions confirm the robustness of the present imagery-based sizing scheme and showed that EC produced numerous and more compact flocs than conventional coagulation.

Disinfection during Iron Electrocoagulation: Differentiating between Inactivation and Floc Entrapment for Escherichia coli and Somatic Coliphage ØX174

Electrochemical water treatment is gaining increasing popularity due to its wide range of potential applications, its decreasing costs, and its suitability as a decentralized treatment alternative, but mainly due to it being considered a ”green technology”. In the field of municipal wastewater treatment, the use of iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) has been marginal and although disinfection has been reported, its underlying mechanisms are not fully understood, for which significant controversy remains. In this study, microbial inactivation during Fe-EC was evaluated as a two-component process, namely, physical removal by microbial floc sorption/entrapment, and inactivation by reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by (semi)Fenton reactions. Using the fecal indicators Escherichia coli WR1 and somatic coliphage ØX174 suspended in a synthetic water matrix, the role of ROS and the role of flocculation were quantitatively evaluated. Fenton inhibitor TEMPOL was used to quench ROS production during Fe-EC. At circumneutral pH, ROS were found to be highly detrimental to E. coli, yet only mildly damaging for phage ØX174 (≈3.9 log10 and ≈0.8 log10 inactivation, respectively). Inactivation for both indicators increased under acidic conditions (pH 5.5), likely due to the formation of hydroxyl radicals (•OH), exceeding 5.1 log10 for E. coli and 1.5 log10 for phage ØX174. The ROS inactivation pathway is linked to the oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe2+), being independent of flocculation settings. Experiments involving different flocculation settings demonstrated that there is a strong positive correlation between orthokinetic-like flocculation conditions, floc sedimentation, and microbial removal, meaning that floc entrapment is a major removal pathway following Fe-EC. When compared to control experiments in which no proper flocculation stage was introduced, orthokinetic flocculation produced additional 3.1 log10 and 4.4 log10 removal for E. coli and phage ØX174, respectively. We conclude that ROS production is not a prerequisite for removal of E. coli and phage ØX174, however, it does offer an additional disinfection barrier, which increases the robustness of Fe-EC for water treatment.

Evaluating Different Commercial Forms of Carbon as Cathodes in Air-cathode Assisted Iron Electrocoagulation (ACAIE) of Groundwater for Arsenic Removal

Evaluating Different Commercial Forms of Carbon as Cathodes in Air-cathode Assisted Iron Electrocoagulation (ACAIE) of Groundwater for Arsenic Removal

In-situ production of iron flocculation and reactive oxygen species by electrochemically decomposing siderite: An innovative Fe-EC route to remove trivalent arsenic

The removal of trivalent arsenic (As (III)) from water has received extensive attention from researchers. Iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) is an efficient technology for arsenic removal. However, electrode passivation hinders the development and application of Fe-EC. In this work, an innovative Fe-EC route was developed to remove As (III) through an electrochemical-siderite packed column (ESC). Ferrous ions were produced from siderite near the anode, and hydroxide was generated near the cathode during the electrochemical decomposition of siderite. As a result, an effect of Fe-EC-like was obtained. The results showed that an excellent removal performance of As (III) (>99%) was obtained by adjusting the parameters (As (III) concentration at 10 mg/L, pH at 7, Na2SO4 at 10 mM and the hydraulic retention time at 30 min) and the oxidation rate of As (III) reached 84.12%. The mechanism analysis indicated that As (III) was oxidized to As (Ⅴ) by the produced active oxide species and electrode, and then was removed by capturing on the iron oxide precipitates. As (III) was likely to be oxidized in two ways, one by the reactive oxygen species (possibly •OH, Fe(IV) and •O2- species), and another directly by the anode. The long-term effectiveness of arsenic removal demonstrated that ESC process based on the electrochemical-siderite packed column was an appropriate candidate for treating As (III) pollution.

Removal and Inactivation of Nonenveloped and Enveloped Virus Surrogates by Conventional Coagulation and Electrocoagulation Using Aluminum and Iron

The continued threat of contamination of municipal water supplies necessitates the systematic evaluation of the efficacy of existing unit processes to protect public health and develop new technologies to better attenuate a wide range of viruses in the water we drink. We compared four coagulation approaches (conventional alum and FeCl3 coagulation and aluminum and iron electrocoagulation) in terms of their ability to remove/inactivate an enveloped virus surrogate (ϕ6) and a nonenveloped virus surrogate (MS2) under identical experimental conditions. Facile removal and inactivation of ϕ6 by alum and FeCl3 indicated the ability of existing conventional treatment plants to well-attenuate enveloped viruses. MS2 was attenuated to a lower extent than ϕ6, indicating relatively weaker protection against nonenveloped viruses by conventional coagulation. Performance of aluminum electrocoagulation was akin to that of alum. In contrast, iron electrocoagulation significantly outperformed the other three approaches (given sufficient time) and was the sole technique capable of simultaneously inactivating and removing both bacteriophages. However, all four coagulation approaches ruptured the ϕ6 phospholipid envelope and damaged its nucleocapsid’s structural integrity. Only iron electrocoagulation resulted in the appearance of new presumptive carbonyl derivatives for MS2 and the trans geometric isomer of lipid hydrocarbon chains for ϕ6 in infrared spectra, indicating oxidative modifications to the MS2 protein capsid and the ϕ6 lipid envelope, respectively. Hence, this technology presents a harsh physicochemical environment capable of simultaneously removing and inactivating viruses.

Experimental and modeling evidence of hydroxyl radical production in iron electrocoagulation as a new mechanism for contaminant transformation in bicarbonate electrolyte

Iron electrocoagulation is designed for sustainable high-efficiency and high-flexibility water purification applications. Recent advances reported that hydroxyl radicals (•OH)-based oxidative transformation of organic contaminants can occur in iron electrocoagulation. However, there is still a lack of mechanistic understanding the production of •OH in bicarbonate electrolyte, which presents a critical knowledge gap in the optimization of iron electrocoagulation technology towards practical application. Combined with contaminant degradation, radical quenching experiments, and spectroscopic techniques, we found that •OH was produced at rate of 16.1 μM∙h − 1 during 30-mA iron electrocoagulation in bicarbonate electrolyte through activation of O2 by Fe(II) under pH-neutral conditions. High yield of •OH occurred at pH 8.5, likely due to high adsorbed Fe(II) that can activate O2 to enhance •OH production. Mössbauer and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements substantiated that Fe(II)-adsorbed lepidocrocite was the dominant solid Fe(II) species at pH 8.5. A process-based kinetic modeling was developed to describe the dynamic of •OH production, Fe(II) oxidation, and contaminant degradation processes in iron electrocoagulation. Findings of this study extend the functionality of electrocoagulation from phase separation to •OH-based advanced oxidation process, which provides a new perspective for the development of electrocoagulation-based next generation sustainable water purification technology.

Effective removal of Sb(V) from aqueous solutions by electrocoagulation with composite scrap iron-manganese as an anode

Improving the removal rate of pentavalent antimony (Sb(V)) by electrocoagulation (EC) is of great significance to the environment. In this paper, the EC with composite scrap iron and manganese filings as an anode (Fe-Mn EC) was investigated for the high-efficiency elimination of Sb(V). The results showed that Fe-Mn EC can enhance the removal of Sb(V) by 11.18-17.36% compared with the traditional iron electrocoagulation (Fe EC). Meanwhile, Sb(V) removal increased with the growth of current concentration as well as Mn content in the anode. However, the Sb(V) removal rate was inhibited when Mn content exceeded 20%. Moreover, the flocs generated during the Fe and Fe-Mn EC (Fe flocs and Fe-Mn flocs) were analyzed both structurally and theoretically using XRD, SEM, BET, and adsorption experiment. The results indicated that the components of Fe-Mn flocs were mostly Mn-substituted FeOOH, which appeared as the structure of nanometer flakes and large internal surface areas. Meanwhile, the Fe-Mn flocs had the ability of much faster Sb(V) adsorption rate; its Sb(V) adsorption capacity was 2.5 times more than that of the Fe flocs. The thermodynamics constants of both Fe and Fe-Mn flocs proved that adsorption was associated with monolayer physical adsorption. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the electrocoagulation with composite scrap iron-manganese as an anode to remove Sb, which provide a new idea and potential technical support for the removal of Sb(V).

Inactivation of Escherichia coli and somatic coliphage ΦX174 by oxidation of electrochemically produced Fe2+

Electrochemical ferrous iron (Fe2+) wastewater treatment is gaining momentum for treating municipal wastewater due to its decreasing costs, environmental friendliness and capacity for removal of a wide range of contaminants. Disinfection by iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) has been occasionally reported in full scale industrial applications, yet controversy remains regarding its underlying elimination mechanisms and kinetics. In this study, it was demonstrated that substantial inactivation can be achieved for Escherichia coli WR1 (5 log10) and somatic coliphage ΦX174 (2–3 log10). Electrochemically produced Fe2+ yielded similar inactivation as chemical Fe2+. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-quenching experiments with TEMPOL confirmed that E. coli inactivation was related to the production of Fenton-like intermediates during Fe2+ oxidation. The observed E. coli disinfection kinetics could be mathematically related to Fe-EC current intensity using a Chick-Watson-like expression, in which the amperage is surrogate for the disinfectant's concentration. We hereby show that it is possible to mathematically predict disinfection based on applied Fe dosage and dosage speed. Phage ΦX174 inactivation could not be described in a similar way because at higher Fe dosages (>20 mg/l), little additional inactivation was observed. Also, ROS-quencher TEMPOL did not completely inhibit phage ΦX174 removal, suggesting that additional pathways are relevant for its elimination.