Iron Age Samples Research Articles

Affinities of the Sargat Population in the Baraba Forest-Steppe

Within-group, between-group, and comparative analysis of craniometric data relating to local and chronological samples of the Sargat population (5th century BC to late 3rd / 4th century AD) was carried out. The study focuses on sample from the Baraba forest-steppe. Comparative analysis, performed with the principal component method, included Early Iron Age samples from adjacent territories. No discontinuity was found in the spatio-temporal cranial variation among the Sargat groups. Despite differences between the three Sargat samples (Baraba, Irtysh, and Trans-Ural), they all represent one and the same Caucasoid physical type, characterized by meso-brachycrany, medium-high braincase, wide low, and somewhat flattened face, moderately inclined frontal bone, and protruding nasal bones. The Baraba group differs from two others by a wider face, larger pyriform aperture, and largest dacryal width. Comparative statistical analysis indicates affinities of the male part of Sargat groups with nomads of the Urals and Kazakhstan—Saka, Sauromatians, and Sarmats. Possibly, military campaigns by the Achaemenid state against the nomadic tribal unions of Central Asia in the second half of the 6th century BC triggered the migration process. Initially, migrants moved to the Irtysh basin, and thence to the western (Trans-Ural) and eastern (Baraba) peripheries of the emerging Sargat culture. The female part of the population was less affected by migratory processes. Female samples of the Sargat reveal an autochthonous cranial complex.

Изменчивость лицевого скелета у носителей джетыасарской археологической культуры Восточного Приаралья по данным 3D геометрической морфометрии

Introduction. The origin of the Jetyasar culture’s population remains a subject of debate. It was generally accepted that the Xiongnu penetrated into the Aral Sea region and participated in the formation of the local population. Previous studies have shown a complex and admixed origin of the Jetyasar people. But the spread of the head deformation tradition in this population imposes serious limitations on the application of craniometric methods for studying Jetyasar samples. Those limitations can be potentially mitigated with the use of geometric morphometrics (GM). The purpose of this work was to assess the degree of variation in the facial skeleton of the Jetyasar people in comparison with populations of the Early Iron Age and the Hunno-Sarmatian period. Material and methods. Digital, three-dimensional models of the skulls were created. Ten landmarks were placed on each of the models and subjected to general Procrustes analysis (GPA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Results. The first PC of the analysis of the total male sample reflects variation in the height of the face, nasal bridge protrusion, and the relative width of the infraorbital region. The second component describes the height of the lateral part of the zygomatic process of the maxilla and the adjacent part of the zygomatic bone. The Kosasar 2 male sample is the most diverse morphologically. This burial ground, according to archeological data, belonged to a migrant population related to the Xiongnu. In the female total sample, high values of the first PC are associated with a tall face, a weak nasal bridge protrusion, and a long zygomatic-maxillary suture. The second PC describes the morphology of the zygomatic process of the upper jaw. The Jetyasar samples are morphologically distinct from the skulls from China, Mongolia, Western Siberia, and Southern Siberia. An exception are the crania from the burial grounds of Kosasar 2, 3, and Altyn-Asar 4t which are similar to the early Iron Age samples from China (inner Mongolia, Warring States period, 5 th – 3rd centuries BC), Mongolia (Xiongnu period), and Tuva (Arzhan-2). Discussion. The Xiongnu migration could become a catalyst for the admixture and ethnogenetic processes in the region. Conclusion. Our study shows that the population of the Jetyasar culture was morphologically heterogeneous at all stages of the culture’s development. The hypothesis about the migrant roots of a part of the population is confirmed by our data.

Artefacts from Ban Chiang, Thailand: Pre-metal Age cord-marked pottery

Abstract Pottery excavated from the archeological UNESCO world heritage site Ban Chiang in Thailand stem from distinct periods. Black vessels with cord-mark design from Pre-metal Age (ca. 3000–1000 BC), Bronze Age pottery (ca 1000–300 BC) with yellow-brown surface and Iron Age samples (ca. 300 BC–200 AD) with red pictorial surface patterns. In a previous work [Bismayer U., Srilomsak S., Treekamol Y., Tanthanuch W., Suriyatham K. Artefacts from Ban Chiang, Thailand: pottery with hematite-red geometric patterns. Z. Kristallogr. 2020, 235, 559–568] we studied the mineralogical composition and their surface colour materials of shards from Bronze and Iron Age. In this work we focus on bulk features of the dark Pre-metal Age cord-marked ceramic shard PSN2-S10E13 and compare its elemental and mineralogical composition with bulk composition of sample 5412-S6E15 from Bronze Age. Experimental techniques are electron microprobe, X-ray powder diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy, optical microscopy and X-ray tomographic microscopy (XTM). Sample PSN2-S10E13 contains more quartz than 5412-S6E15. In the bulk of the Pre-metal Age shard, diffraction signals of mullite occur, indicating higher firing temperatures compared to the younger sample. Phyllosilicate signals are seen in FTIR spectra of both shards. E-modes of quartz dominate FTIR spectra of both samples. Optical thin sections show voids around micro-particles in PSN2-S10E13 and XTM indicates that the pore volume percentage of sample PSN2-S10E13 is higher than in 5412-S6E15. Because of the large age gap to younger samples from Ban Chiang, the proper age of our oldest sample PSN2-S10E13 was determined using an accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) by simultaneous 14C/12C and 13C/12C isotope ratio measurements which yielded a radiocarbon age of 3609 ± 29 BP (resp. 1659 ± 29 BC).

Genetic continuity of Indo-Iranian speakers since the Iron Age in southern Central Asia

Since prehistoric times, southern Central Asia has been at the crossroads of the movement of people, culture, and goods. Today, the Central Asian populations are divided into two cultural and linguistic groups: the Indo-Iranian and the Turko-Mongolian groups. Previous genetic studies unveiled that migrations from East Asia contributed to the spread of Turko-Mongolian populations in Central Asia and the partial replacement of the Indo-Iranian populations. However, little is known about the origin of the latters. To shed light on this, we compare the genetic data on two current-day Indo-Iranian populations — Yaghnobis and Tajiks — with genome-wide data from published ancient individuals. The present Indo-Iranian populations from Central Asia display a strong genetic continuity with Iron Age samples from Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. We model Yaghnobis as a mixture of 93% Iron Age individual from Turkmenistan and 7% from Baikal. For the Tajiks, we observe a higher Baikal ancestry and an additional admixture event with a South Asian population. Our results, therefore, suggest that in addition to a complex history, Central Asia shows a remarkable genetic continuity since the Iron Age, with only limited gene flow.

Hallstatt miners consumed blue cheese and beer during the Iron Age and retained a non-Westernized gut microbiome until the Baroque period

SummaryWe subjected human paleofeces dating from the Bronze Age to the Baroque period (18th century AD) to in-depth microscopic, metagenomic, and proteomic analyses. The paleofeces were preserved in the underground salt mines of the UNESCO World Heritage site of Hallstatt in Austria. This allowed us to reconstruct the diet of the former population and gain insights into their ancient gut microbiome composition. Our dietary survey identified bran and glumes of different cereals as some of the most prevalent plant fragments. This highly fibrous, carbohydrate-rich diet was supplemented with proteins from broad beans and occasionally with fruits, nuts, or animal food products. Due to these traditional dietary habits, all ancient miners up to the Baroque period have gut microbiome structures akin to modern non-Westernized individuals whose diets are also mainly composed of unprocessed foods and fresh fruits and vegetables. This may indicate a shift in the gut community composition of modern Westernized populations due to quite recent dietary and lifestyle changes. When we extended our microbial survey to fungi present in the paleofeces, in one of the Iron Age samples, we observed a high abundance of Penicillium roqueforti and Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA. Genome-wide analysis indicates that both fungi were involved in food fermentation and provides the first molecular evidence for blue cheese and beer consumption in Iron Age Europe.

The frequency of butchery marks on goat (Capra hircus) remains from pastoral Khoekhoe villages at Gobabeb, Namibia

Khoekhoe pastoralists living in Gobabeb, in the arid Kuiseb River Valley of central-western Namibia, keep goats (Capra hircus). Several decades ago, palaeontologist C.K. Brain collected modern skeletal remains of goats from these villages. The goats were butchered using pocketknives with metal blades. We investigated the frequency of butchery marks on a sub-sam- ple of this collection, representing 60% of the total assemblage. Most specimens in the collection are weathered. Moreover, most goat specimens from Gobabeb lack butchery evidence and even the use of magnification only marginally increased this number. We compared our results with the frequency of butchery marks documented from Early and Middle Iron Age samples from South Africa, a time when sheep dominated faunal assemblages and were slaughtered using metal knives. The frequency of specimens with butchery marks in the goat sample from Gobabeb is higher than that recorded for the Early and Middle Iron Age samples. The higher frequency of butchery marks on the goat remains from Gobabeb may relate to aspects such as the butchering method and style, as well as the large size of the specimens themselves.

Traumatic injuries on the crania from the Novo-Sasykul cemetery

This study is focused on the cranial sample from the Novo-Sasykul cemetery of the Pyany Bor Culture in the Lower Kama region (Bakaly District, Republic of Bashkortostan). The Novo-Sasykul cemetery is dated to the 1st–2nd c. AD, and it is fully excavated. The frequency of traumatic injuries has been analyzed in a sample consisting of 94 skulls of adult individuals (47 males, 47 females) stored in the Bashkortostan National Museum (Ufa). Injuries have been examined according to recommendations and methods used in the forensic medicine and paleopathology. The distribution of traumas was studied depending on sex and the side of the skull (left / right or frontal / dorsal). The intergroup variability of the ratios of combat traumas was studied with the involvement of a number of the Early Iron Age samples. The differences in frequencies were analyzed using the chi-squared test and two-tailed Fisher's exact test. It has been noted that the analysed sample is characterized by the high level of fatal combat injuries. In total, 16 injuries were recorded on 12 skulls (21.3 % in males, 4.3 % in females). A significantly larger number of traumas are localized on the left side of the skull, which may indicate a predominant strike direction from right to left. The identified traumatic injuries are grouped into five types. With the exception of one case of injury by a trilobate bone arrowhead, all injuries are qualified as blade weapon traumas. All traumas are perimortal, without any traces of healing. Against a comparative background, the studied sample is characterized by the high level of combat traumas, similar to those of the Late Sarmatian population from Esaulovskiy Aksai, the Hun from Ulangom, and the Bulan-Koba Culture sample from the Stepushka cemetery. However, archaeologically identified low level of armament of the Novo-Sasykul cemetery population, as well as the short period of the cemetery functioning, testify against the regular involvement of the analyzed group in armed conflicts. The high frequency of combat cranial traumas in this group, considering its low militarization, represented mainly by iron and bone arrowheads with a small amount of melee weapons, suggests that the Pyany Bor groups were more likely to be subjected to armed raids, acting more often as victims. Taking into account the planigraphy of the burials from which the injured skulls originate, it has been concluded that this part of the studied group died as a result of a possibly single armed conflict.

Funerary reuse of a Roman amphitheatre: Palaeodietary and osteological study of Early Middle Ages burials (8th and 9th centuries AD) discovered in the Arena of Verona (Northeastern Italy)

AbstractThe economic and political disruption following the collapse of the Roman Empire is an important moment for the cultural and biological history of Western Europe. One of the trends associated this socioeconomic change is the reuse of Roman public monuments for different purposes including funerary ones. The cultural meaning of this practice, occasionally described throughout Europe, is however still unclear. Here, we present a study of a group of burials (N = 10) recently discovered in the Roman amphitheatre (Arena) of Verona (Northeastern Italy) and dating to Early Middle Ages (8th and 9th century AD). Specifically, we address the following research questions: (1) What depositional events are responsible for the observed stratigraphic sequence? 2) Which demographic composition and health condition characterize this sample? (3) What kind of diet characterized these individuals? In order to address these questions, we performed an osteological and isotopic (δ13C and δ15N) study of the skeletal evidence for the assessment of palaeopathological and dietary patterns and a histological analysis for the refinement of age at death and the calculation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI). A 14C study was also performed in order to better define the depositional sequence of these individuals. The results, besides being among the first palaeodietary data for Early Middle Ages in this region, highlight: (a) the funerary use of this location for at least one century; (b) an MNI of 10 individuals of both sexes and different age classes, featuring relatively high frequencies of unspecific stress markers (porotic hyperostosis and linear enamel hypoplasia) and trauma, and (c) a diet characterized by a consistent contribution of C4 plants and a good access to animal proteins. These results suggest a long‐spanning practice and the absence of any selectivity in the choice of these individuals. Finally, isotopic data align with previous studies on Bronze and Iron Age samples confirming a long tradition of alimentary exploitation of C4 plants in this area.

Burned human remains: diachronic analysis of cremation rituals in necropolises of northern Italy

The funeral ritual of cremation has been practiced since ancient times and is an important source of information for the reconstruction of past mortuary behavior. In this study, 387 cremation tombs from five sites in the Po Valley (northern Italy) belonging to different periods (from the Bronze Age to the Roman Age) were examined to identify possible diachronic differences in cremation rituals. Anthropological analyses consisted of sex and age-at-death determination and estimation of the minimum number of individuals. Factors such as color variations of bones, fragmentation, skeletal completeness, and presence of animal bones were investigated as indicators of the funeral ritual. Different representation of the two sexes and different age-at-death were compared, as were single burials versus multiple ones. The results demonstrated significant differences among periods for almost all variables considered. The Bronze Age sample presented a higher frequency of single graves. The Iron and Roman Age samples showed a higher frequency of subadults than the Bronze Age. The cremations from all periods showed high frequencies of arm and leg bones, but the Roman Age sample showed a higher frequency of vertebrae and pelvic girdle elements. Larger fragments (≥ 20 mm) prevailed in the Roman Age, as did the presence of animal bones and blackened bones. We discuss these results by comparing them with sociocultural data of the human communities settled in the Po Valley during the Bronze, Iron, and Roman Ages. In conclusion, our study revealed different funerary rituals in northern Italy among the three periods.

Towards a new osteometric method for sexing ancient cremated human remains. Analysis of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age samples from Italy with gendered grave goods.

Sex estimation of human remains is one of the most important research steps for physical anthropologists and archaeologists dealing with funerary contexts and trying to reconstruct the demographic structure of ancient societies. However, it is well known that in the case of cremations sex assessment might be complicated by the destructive/transformative effect of the fire on bones. Osteometric standards built on unburned human remains and contemporary cremated series are often inadequate for the analysis of ancient cremations, and frequently result in a significant number of misclassifications. This work is an attempt to overcome the scarcity of methods that could be applied to pre-proto-historic Italy and serve as methodological comparison for other European contexts. A set of 24 anatomical traits were measured on 124 Bronze Age and Iron Age cremated individuals with clearly engendered grave goods. Assuming gender largely correlated to sex, male and female distributions of each individual trait measured were compared to evaluate sexual dimorphism through inferential statistics and Chaktaborty and Majumder’s index. The discriminatory power of each variable was evaluated by cross-validation tests. Eight variables yielded an accuracy equal to or greater than 80%. Four of these variables also show a similar degree of precision for both sexes. The most diagnostic measurements are from radius, patella, mandible, talus, femur, first metatarsal, lunate and humerus. Overall, the degree of sexual dimorphism and the reliability of estimates obtained from our series are similar to those of a modern cremated sample recorded by Gonçalves and collaborators. Nevertheless, mean values of the male and female distributions in our case study are lower, and the application of the cut-off point calculated from the modern sample to our ancient individuals produces a considerable number of misclassifications. This result confirms the need to build population-specific methods for sexing the cremated remains of ancient individuals.

Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history.

British population history has been shaped by a series of immigrations, including the early Anglo-Saxon migrations after 400 CE. It remains an open question how these events affected the genetic composition of the current British population. Here, we present whole-genome sequences from 10 individuals excavated close to Cambridge in the East of England, ranging from the late Iron Age to the middle Anglo-Saxon period. By analysing shared rare variants with hundreds of modern samples from Britain and Europe, we estimate that on average the contemporary East English population derives 38% of its ancestry from Anglo-Saxon migrations. We gain further insight with a new method, rarecoal, which infers population history and identifies fine-scale genetic ancestry from rare variants. Using rarecoal we find that the Anglo-Saxon samples are closely related to modern Dutch and Danish populations, while the Iron Age samples share ancestors with multiple Northern European populations including Britain.

Ancient DNA reveals matrilineal continuity in present-day Poland over the last two millennia.

While numerous ancient human DNA datasets from across Europe have been published till date, modern-day Poland in particular, remains uninvestigated. Besides application in the reconstruction of continent-wide human history, data from this region would also contribute towards our understanding of the history of the Slavs, whose origin is hypothesized to be in East or Central Europe. Here, we present the first population-scale ancient human DNA study from the region of modern-day Poland by establishing mitochondrial DNA profiles for 23 samples dated to 200 BC – 500 AD (Roman Iron Age) and for 20 samples dated to 1000–1400 AD (Medieval Age). Our results show that mitochondrial DNA sequences from both periods belong to haplogroups that are characteristic of contemporary West Eurasia. Haplotype sharing analysis indicates that majority of the ancient haplotypes are widespread in some modern Europeans, including Poles. Notably, the Roman Iron Age samples share more rare haplotypes with Central and Northeast Europeans, whereas the Medieval Age samples share more rare haplotypes with East-Central and South-East Europeans, primarily Slavic populations. Our data demonstrates genetic continuity of certain matrilineages (H5a1 and N1a1a2) in the area of present-day Poland from at least the Roman Iron Age until present. As such, the maternal gene pool of present-day Poles, Czechs and Slovaks, categorized as Western Slavs, is likely to have descended from inhabitants of East-Central Europe during the Roman Iron Age.

Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal diversity in ancient populations of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in Finland: comparison with contemporary sheep breeds

BackgroundSeveral molecular and population genetic studies have focused on the native sheep breeds of Finland. In this work, we investigated their ancestral sheep populations from Iron Age, Medieval and Post-Medieval periods by sequencing a partial mitochondrial DNA D-loop and the 5’-promoter region of the SRY gene. We compared the maternal (mitochondrial DNA haplotypes) and paternal (SNP oY1) genetic diversity of ancient sheep in Finland with modern domestic sheep populations in Europe and Asia to study temporal changes in genetic variation and affinities between ancient and modern populations.ResultsA 523-bp mitochondrial DNA sequence was successfully amplified for 26 of 36 sheep ancient samples i.e. five, seven and 14 samples representative of Iron Age, Medieval and Post-Medieval sheep, respectively. Genetic diversity was analyzed within the cohorts. This ancient dataset was compared with present-day data consisting of 94 animals from 10 contemporary European breeds and with GenBank DNA sequence data to carry out a haplotype sharing analysis. Among the 18 ancient mitochondrial DNA haplotypes identified, 14 were present in the modern breeds. Ancient haplotypes were assigned to the highly divergent ovine haplogroups A and B, haplogroup B being the major lineage within the cohorts. Only two haplotypes were detected in the Iron Age samples, while the genetic diversity of the Medieval and Post-Medieval cohorts was higher. For three of the ancient DNA samples, Y-chromosome SRY gene sequences were amplified indicating that they originated from rams. The SRY gene of these three ancient ram samples contained SNP G-oY1, which is frequent in modern north-European sheep breeds.ConclusionsOur study did not reveal any sign of major population replacement of native sheep in Finland since the Iron Age. Variations in the availability of archaeological remains may explain differences in genetic diversity estimates and patterns within the cohorts rather than demographic events that occurred in the past. Our ancient DNA results fit well with the genetic context of domestic sheep as determined by analyses of modern north-European sheep breeds.

14C Dating of Humic Acids from Bronze and Iron Age Plant Remains from the Eastern Mediterranean

Radiocarbon dating of plant remains is often difficult due to the complete dissolution of the samples in the alkaline step of the ABA pretreatment. At the VERA laboratory, this problem was encountered frequently when numerous Bronze and Early Iron Age samples from the eastern Mediterranean were dated in the course of the special research program SCIEM2000 and in other collaborations with archaeologists focused on that area and time period. For these samples, only a 14C age determination of the humic acid fraction was possible. Humic acids from archaeological samples are always assessed as a second-choice material for 14C dating. It is assumed that the 14C ages may be affected by the presence of humic acids originating from other (younger) organic material, e.g. from soil horizons located above a sample. Therefore, when humic acids are dated a verification of the dates is crucial. To address this basic requirement, we started some time ago to date both fractions of charred seeds, wood, and charcoal samples whenever available, i.e. the residue after the ABA treatment and the humic acids extracted from the samples in the alkaline step. The results of this comparison showed that for the investigated eastern Mediterranean archaeological sites, 50 (out of 52) humic acid dates were in agreement with the 14C dates of the respective ABA-treated samples. Statistical analysis of the age differences leads to the conclusion that the extracted humic acids originated from the samples themselves or from contemporaneous material and were not appreciably contaminated by extraneous material of different age.

14C Dating of Humic Acids from Bronze and Iron Age Plant Remains from the Eastern Mediterranean

Radiocarbon dating of plant remains is often difficult due to the complete dissolution of the samples in the alkaline step of the ABA pretreatment. At the VERA laboratory, this problem was encountered frequently when numerous Bronze and Early Iron Age samples from the eastern Mediterranean were dated in the course of the special research program SCIEM2000 and in other collaborations with archaeologists focused on that area and time period. For these samples, only a 14C age determination of the humic acid fraction was possible. Humic acids from archaeological samples are always assessed as a second-choice material for 14C dating. It is assumed that the 14C ages may be affected by the presence of humic acids originating from other (younger) organic material, e.g. from soil horizons located above a sample. Therefore, when humic acids are dated a verification of the dates is crucial. To address this basic requirement, we started some time ago to date both fractions of charred seeds, wood, and charcoal samples whenever available, i.e. the residue after the ABA treatment and the humic acids extracted from the samples in the alkaline step. The results of this comparison showed that for the investigated eastern Mediterranean archaeological sites, 50 (out of 52) humic acid dates were in agreement with the 14C dates of the respective ABA-treated samples. Statistical analysis of the age differences leads to the conclusion that the extracted humic acids originated from the samples themselves or from contemporaneous material and were not appreciably contaminated by extraneous material of different age.

Skeletal evidence for morbidity and mortality in Copper Age samples from northeastern Hungary

AbstractAnalysis of 183 human skeletons representing the Copper Age in northeastern Hungary indicates slightly less morbidity and mortality than found in previous studies of later Bronze Age and Iron Age samples from the same area. Mean adult age at death was 33.4 years for males and 32.9 years for females. Life table reconstruction revealed a life expectancy at birth of about 28 years, and at age 15 of about 17 years. Frequencies of dental hypoplasia (<1%) and carious lesions (2.3%) were relatively low. Comparisons of the Copper Age data reported here with previously published studies of later Bronze Age and Iron Age samples from the same area revealed little or no change in life expectancy at age 15, long bone diaphyseal circumference, estimated living stature, frequencies of dental hypoplasia, alveolar abscesses, tooth loss, adult porotic hyperostosis or trauma. Temporal increases were detected in life expectancy at birth, dental caries frequency, cribra orbitalia, subadult periosteal lesions and vertebral osteoarthritis. The study is part of a larger effort to examine long‐term temporal changes in skeletal samples from that region. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

NEW EVIDENCE FOR IRON AGE SECONDARY BURIAL PRACTICE AND BONE MODIFICATION FROM GUSSAGE ALL SAINTS AND MAIDEN CASTLE (DORSET, ENGLAND)

Summary. The Middle and Late Iron Age samples of disarticulated human remains from the settlement site of Gussage All Saints and the hillfort of Maiden Castle (Dorset, England) were investigated for evidence of funerary rites. The samples were examined using osteological, forensic and archaeological methodologies for evidence of excarnation and secondary burial. The study found evidence for dry‐fractures, animal gnawing and peri‐mortem trauma, indicating that many individuals had received blunt‐force cranial fractures and/or weapon injuries at the time of death. The taphonomic indicators showed that bodies were excarnated, received secondary burial treatment and then selected skull and long bones were incorporated into structured deposits. Osteological analysis also showed that the majority of individuals were adult males, which corresponded to patterns of trauma in the inhumated sample from Dorset. Two bones also provided unique evidence within Dorset for the cultural modification of human remains.

Pollen analysis of Iron Age cow dung in southern Africa

Thick accumulations of consolidated cow dung occur in ancientkraals (byres or corrals) in the bushveld and highveld areas of Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa dating from the last 2000 years. They originated from long-term cattle herding by Iron Age people. The “vitrified” or baked dung deposits are thought to be a product of the burning of cow dung as fuel, either for domestic purposes or for iron smelting. In order to establish the palaeoecological potential of this material, 36 samples of cow dung from archaeological sites within the present-day savanna and grassland biomes were analyzed for pollen and other microfossils. Of the samples, 29 contained pollen together with other microfossils that support a faecal origin of the material such as sordariaceous ascospores,Thecaphora, Gelasinospora, andChaetomium, and eggs of the intestinal parasiteTrichuris. Similar microfossils were also found in recent fresh cow dung from the same study areas. The presence of pollen grains and spores in most of the Iron Age samples lead to the assumption that they survived the burning because fire temperatures were not high enough to destroy them. Pollen in these cow dung pieces is apparently sealed and can be preserved under open-air conditions at sites under which pollen in other deposits like soils, will decay away. Good pollen preservation and palynomorph diversity were found with mainly Poaceae, and secondly Chenopodiaceae and Cyperaceae as the most important pollen types, while trees and shrubs indicating savanna are rare. In the case of the samples that came from the subtropical savanna biome the latter result is unexpected and suggests that the cattle were kept in more open vegetation than the woody environments of today. Recent cow dung samples reflect the composition of present-day vegetation by showing considerably higher proportions of tree pollen than the fossil assemblages.

Rudjer Bošković Institute Radiocarbon Measurements XIV

In this report we present dating of several large series of samples mostly collected in Croatia: (i) Iron Age and Medieval samples excavated in Zagreb, (ii) speleothems from a karst site in C Croatia, (iii) shallow lake sediments from the Plitvice Lakes, (iv) tufa from the Krka River, (v) sea sediments from Adriatic sea, and (vi) tree rings from Hungary, Croatia and Slovenia. Sample preparation and proportional counter technique are essentially the same as reported earlier (Srdoc et al. 1971). Processing of data has been computerized (Obelic 1989).

Geochemistry and Trade of Eastern Mediterranean Millstones from the Neolithic to Roman Periods

Millstones and grindstones of the prehistoric to Roman periods include saddle querns, rectangular hopper-rubber mills, rotary querns and Pompeian-style donkey mills. Many of these were manufactured from igneous rocks which can be provenanced to their geological sources using chemical analysis, giving information about trade contacts of sites. Sixty-nine samples of 10-20 g each were removed from broken parts of lava millstones of prehistoric and early historic date, from sites in Israel, Syria, Egypt, Greece and Turkey. These were analysed for major and trace elements using X-ray fluorescence, and petrological features were examined in thin section. The millstones were all young generally fresh lavas ranging from vesicular basalt to porphyritic andesite. Potential sources occur in younger volcanics of mainland Greece, the Aegean, Turkey and the Levant (Israel, Syria and Jordan), and in Egypt. Thirty-four geological samples from Israel, Syria and Turkey were collected and analysed in the same way as the archaeological samples, and an intensive literature survey carried out to supplement these by published analyses. Comparison of archaeological samples with source data is done by using a series of discrimination graphs, following a simple flow diagram. The archaeological samples were of two types, within-plate lavas, and island arc or other subduction-related lavas. All samples were successfully assigned to sources, and results show use of the source areas as follows.During the prehistoric period (Neolithic, Bronze Age, pre-6th century BC Iron Age samples) saddle querns in mainland Greece were made of Aegina andesire, while sites in north Syria used local Syrian lavas, and in Israel basalts from near Lake Tiberias and from the Dead Sea area were used. Earlier work by the authors and others has shown import of Levant millstones to Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age. Hopper-rubbers of the 5th century BC onwards were made at specialized quarries in Aegean islands, on Nisyros, Kimolos and Santorini, and exported to mainland Greece, western Turkey, Egypt and Cyprus. Less well-finished hopper-rubbers were made and used in western Turkey and in Israel. Roman Pompeian-style mills were made of Levant lavas from several sources, particularly around Lake Tiberias, and were transported within Israel as well as to Cyprus as shown by earlier studies. Rotary querns were made of lavas from Santorini and probably Nisyros, and of locally-used west Anatolian rocks. Rotary querns of Roman and later (10th-12th century AD) dates were also produced at several sources in the Levant, again around Lake Tiberias and probably in north Syria and within the Dead Sea volcanics, for use within Israel. Olive-crushing trapeta used in Turkey and Greece were manufactured from andesites from Anatolia and Aegina respectively. West Anatolian lavas (mill types unknown) have also been identified at Roman sites in the eastern desert of Egypt.Millstone distributions increased in complexity and extent over time, with hopper-rubbers being traded up to 820 km from sources, and Roman rotary millstones up to 1300 km. The three major source areas—Aegean, Anatolia and the Levant—were in apparent competition by the Roman period, when there is extensive overlap of distributions from different sources, with Aegean and Anatolian products traded the furthest. The millstone trade in the eastern Mediterranean is separate from that of the west Mediterranean (west of Greece) except for one hopper-rubber of Nisyros lava identified in a shipwreck off Mallorca. This dichotomy is in marked contrast to the distribution of amphorae, within which west Mediterranean (Italian) products were widely used in the east from at least the 2nd century BC. Stylistically, east Mediterranean millstones also show differences from those in the west, in the prevalence of hopper-rubbers, and later in decorative Features common on Pompeian-style mills.