Iron Age Graves Research Articles

ABSOLUTE DATES OF ARTIFACTS FROM LUSATIAN URNFIELD CEMETERY AT BRZEZIE, GREATER POLAND

ABSTRACTBrzezie in the Pleszew region was first mentioned in archaeological literature, as the location where a treasure of gold artifacts dating back to the 3rd period of the Bronze Age was discovered in 1876. Archaeological research has been conducted there almost continuously since 1985. The result of many years of fieldwork is the discovery of 363 late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age graves, as well as 50 burials of the Przeworsk culture from the era of Roman influence. In the last few years, further research has been conducted by archeologist Grzegorz Szczurek. After comprehensive geophysical prospecting, the extent of the necropolis was established, and more graves were excavated. For the first time, materials for radiocarbon and luminescence dating were also collected to determine the absolute chronology for this archaeological site. Four samples were dated in the Poznań radiocarbon laboratory, and five luminescence tests were conducted in the Gliwice luminescence laboratory. Due to the complete thermo-destruction of collagen in human bones, age determination was based on carbonate fractionation. In one case, a piece of charcoal was selected for dating purposes. Considering uncertainties and the fact that both methods date different events, the results reveal concurrence, giving a 1000–500 BC range.

HUMAN DIET DURING THE STONE AGE AND EARLY METAL PERIOD (7000–1 CAL BC) IN LITHUANIA: AN UPDATE

ABSTRACTIn this study we present new carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope data of human (n=13) and animal (n=40) bone and/or dentine collagen samples, alongside accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS 14C) dates of human remains (n=16). The studied material was sampled from Lithuanian sites dating from the Late Mesolithic to the pre-Roman Iron Age. For the first time, we present δ13C and δ15N data from Lithuanian freshwater fish as well as AMS 14C, δ13C, and δ15N measurements of human remains from six disturbed graves at the Donkalnis cemetery and from two pre-Roman Iron Age graves. According to the new results, human diet derived protein from the Late Mesolithic to Subneolithic (ca. 7000–2900 cal BC) was primarily based on freshwater fish. While previous macrobotanical and stable isotope studies has suggested that C4 plants, i.e., millet, became more widely used from the Late Bronze Age (1100–500 cal BC), our data suggests that millet consumption may have decreased during the pre-Roman Iron Age (500–1 cal BC) in the southeastern Baltic.

A Late Iron Age Grave with Human Remains from Apahida in the Collection of Endre Orosz

A Late Iron Age Grave with Human Remains from Apahida in the Collection of Endre Orosz

Phenomenon of primary and secondary animals within Iron Age deposits.

Animals are an integral part of deposition practices during the Danish Iron Age, and they probably represent the most common form of deposit within southern Scandinavia. Recently Gotfredsen published a volume on animals within Danish Iron Age grave contexts, but similarly comprehensive studies of animals from other contexts have not been attempted. Thus, classic sites such as Valmose, Bukkerup Langmose, and Sorte Muld still stand as the type sites for Danish Iron Age animal deposits. This article will demonstrate that there are good reasons for exploring deposits in more detail and investigate the significant variation in the treatment and quantities of sacrificial animal deposits. Furthermore, the current study has revealed a deposition pattern where a primary animal is often in the company of one or more secondary animals, the latter typically represented by a few bones. Salpetermosen Syd (MNS50010), south of Hillerød in North Zealand, Denmark is the main case study, but comparisons are made to several sites across Denmark where a similar deposition pattern has been observed.

Culture Moves Like an Octopus: Aspects on Archaeological Regions and Boundaries

The graves in the interior of central Norrland in northern Sweden exhibit a wide range of forms throughout the Iron Age. Burial mounds and stonesettings of various forms also occur in different environmental contexts. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the spatial and cultural significance of the Iron Age graves in the provinces of Jämtland and Härjedalen. The point at issue is what the distribution of so-called lake graves and burial mounds represent with respect to the general discussion of archaeological regions and cultural traditions. It is here suggested that the concept of region, when it is applied to material culture, represents one of the many aspects of cultural configurations, but as we are dealing here with a longterm perspective the cultural world is continuously in motion, which makes regional boundaries hard to grasp.

The Absence of Gender: Iron Age Burials in the Lake Mälaren area

The article discusses the extent to which conceptions of sex and gender roles can be studied and interpreted on the basis of Iron Age grave material. In accordance with the results of excavations of lron Age cemeteries in central Sweden, it is here argued that the articulation of sex and gender roles was a rare phenomenon in mortuary contexts. Although the articulation of sex and gender is very limited in the artefact material, it is interesting to note that women's graves appear more often than men's graves. Accordingly, this raises questions about women's position in the political and social life of Iron Age society.

Karismatisk bergkrystall fra Ryfylkeheiane? Smykkestein som identitetsmarkør i yngre jernalder

In the 1960s and 1970s, large scale surveys related to hydro power developments in montane areas in Southwest Norway, recorded several rock crystals deposits and sites where crystals from these had been used both in the Stone Age and the Late Iron Age period. The Late Iron Age sites were interpreted as the first proof of locally produced rock crystal beads. In this article, I combine the production sites and rock crystal deposits to describe the operational chain of local bead production. This serves as the point of departure for a consideration of the value ascribed raw materials, local or regional vs. imported goods. I argue that symbolic aspects beyond economic value may have been the incentive for the local production, that is, qualities, such as rock crystals’ aesthetic, affective, or indeed charisma. Rock crystal beads from Late Iron Age graves in Rogaland are used as examples.

Å tenke med havet: Et maritimt perspektiv på jernalderlandskapet mellom Buksnesfjorden og Borg på Vestvågøy i Lofoten

The sea as a point of view: A maritime approach to the Iron Age landscape in Vestvågøy, Norway. Vestvågøy, an island in the Lofoten archipelago, is well known in Scandinavian archaeology due to two massive Iron Age buildings at the Borg farm. Borg has been a popular subject for Iron Age research. Research has mainly focused on agricultural aspects of the Iron Age society on Vestvågøy. Nevertheless, a large number of Iron Age graves are located on islets and headlands. These are not often considered in earlier contributions. In this paper, I explore how a maritime perspective can contribute to a new understanding of Iron Age Vestvågøy. The main premise is that the presence of the sea affects how people structure their landscapes. I view the Iron Age sites and the landscape from the sea: the main transport route in prehistoric coastal Norway. Although interpreted as a central place, Borg is located by a hidden bay north on the island, excluded from maritime communication lines. While some researchers suggest that the Buksnesfjord area was the location for another central place, the layout of the Buksnesfjord area differs from Borg. Through a GIS-based quantitative spatial study of Iron Age graves, I outline an alternative view of the Iron Age landscape.

Milk of ruminants in ceramic baby bottles from prehistoric child graves.

The study of childhood diet, including breastfeeding and weaning, has important implications for our understanding of infant mortality and fertility in past societies1. Stable isotope analyses of nitrogen from bone collagen and dentine samples of infants have provided information on the timing of weaning2; however, little is known about which foods were consumed by infants in prehistory. The earliest known clay vessels that were possibly used for feeding infants appear in Neolithic Europe, and become more common throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. However, these vessels-which include a spout through which liquid could be poured-have also been suggested to be feeding vessels for the sick or infirm3,4. Here we report evidence for the foods that were contained in such vessels, based on analyses of the lipid 'fingerprints' and the compound-specific δ13C and Δ13C values of the major fatty acids of residues from three small, spouted vessels that were found in Bronze and Iron Age graves of infants in Bavaria. The results suggest that the vessels were used to feed infants with milk products derived from ruminants. This evidence of the foodstuffs that were used to either feed or wean prehistoric infants confirms the importance of milk from domesticated animals for these early communities, and provides information on the infant-feeding behaviours that were practised by prehistoric human groups.

The Sun, the Moon, and the Orientation of Baltic Graves: A Mythological Approach to an Archaeological Problem<br>Solnce, luna i orientacija baltskih pogrebenij: mifologičeskij vzljad na arheologičeskuju problemu</br>

This paper focuses on the predominating east-west orientation of Iron Age graves (5 th century BC to the 13 th century AD) and the reasons that could have caused the custom. Based on the data of Baltic mythology and their reflections in folklore, the authors argue that the mythological conception of grave orientation is closely related to the mythological path of the Sun and the image of souls leaving the world of the living. Given the astronomical opposition of the Sun and the Moon, the hypothesis is justified by the fact that, when the graves of men and of women in the Baltic burial grounds adhering to the east-west axis, were oriented in opposite directions, the burial customs could have been affected by the mythological images of the heavenly family: the Sun (wife) and the Moon (husband).

Demographic data and fi gures derived from Estonian Iron Age graves

Three Iron Age cremation graves from south-eastern Estonia and four graves including cremations as well inhumations from western Estonia were analysed by osteological and palaeodemographic methods in order to estimate the age and sex composition of burial sites, and to propose some possible demographic figures and models for living communities.
 The crude birth/death rate estimated on the basis of juvenility indices varied between 55.1‰ and 60.0‰ (58.5‰ on average) at Rõsna village in south-eastern Estonia in the Middle Iron Age. The birth/death rates based on juvenility indices for south eastern graves varied to a greater degree. The estimated crude birth/death rate was somewhat lower (38.9‰) at Maidla in the Late Iron Age and extremely high (92.1‰) at Maidla in the Middle Iron Age, which indicates an unsustainable community. High crude birth/death rates are also characteristic of Poanse tarand graves from the Pre-Roman Iron Age – 92.3‰ for the 1st grave and 69.6‰for the 2nd grave. Expectedly, newborn life expectancies are extremely low in both communities – 10.8 years at Poanse I and 14.4 years at Poanse II. Most likely, both Maidla I and Poanse I were unsustainable communities.
 According to the main model where the given period of grave usage is 150 years, the burial grounds were most likely exploited by communities of 3–14 people. In most cases, this corresponds to one family or household. In comparison with other graves, Maidla II stone grave in western Estonia and Rõsna-Saare I barrow cemetery in south-eastern Estonia could have been used by a somewhat larger community, which may mean an extended family, a larger household or usage by two nuclear families.

„Свештеничка од Марвинци” или „впрегната сопруга”? За семиотиката на железнодобните псалии од кругот на „македонските бронзи”

The main reason for this study are the bronze objects found on the body of a woman (supposedly a “priestess”) from an Iron Age grave (VII century BC) from Marvinci in the Republic of Macedonia. There has also been a bronze statue recently presented in a public space in Skopje, as a contemporary art interpretation of this archeological finding. The main focus of this article is a semiotic analysis of arch-shaped bronze elements from this grave. Based on the form of similar finds from Europe they are defined as cheek-pieces i.e. elements of the reins for horse riding, but in Macedonia they have been used in another function – as female jewelry or as handles of a specific ritual implement. The study suggests overcoming of these contradictions through the following semiotic relations: a girl/mare + equipment for riding = a harnessed mare/wife, i.e. the use of these objects as symbols of a “wild woman” who is transferred from the sphere of “natural” to the sphere of “cultural” through the act of marriage, becoming a “tamed/a domesticated wife”. Within the same relationship the following paradigm is proposed (husband = ruler: wife = subject). Several facts are stated in the argumentation of this relationship: the mythological and ritual traditions based on ancient written sources; a ritual tradition of Slavic and Balkan folklore; a Slavic and ancient Greek lexeme with the meaning husband and wife whose etymology is based on the meaning of harnessed. This semiotic relation offers a possible key for the interpretation of the twenty bronze statues of horsemen placed in the last three years in the capital of the Republic of Macedonia, as part of the project “Skopje 2014”.

Typology and function of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age cremation graves – a micro-regional case study

In Denmark, there has been little focus on characteristic differences between grave types from the transition period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age with limited elaboration on the nature of the differences and on chronological variation. In nearby Scania, Sweden, a grave type classic for Southern Scandinavia, the ‘cremation pit’, has been interpreted as in situ remains of the actual cremation pyre, that is, a form of bustum. Here, we further explore this interpretation through both osteological and archaeological analyses of recently excavated graves from the Fraugde region on northern Funen, Denmark. In the Fraugde region, pyre debris in cremation graves clearly gain significance during the transition period from the Bronze Age towards the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The exclusive presence of cremation pits on the Pre-Roman Iron Age grave sites in contrast to the varied grave types present on the Bronze Age sites implies a change in cremation practice and technology during the transition peri...

NEW RADIOCARBON DATES FOR TWO STONE-CIST GRAVES AT MUUKSI, NORTHERN ESTONIA

In the surroundings of Lake Kahala in northern Estonia, which is the richest area in Estonia in terms of Bronze Age stone graves, over twenty graves have been archaeologically excavated in different decades of the 20th century. Only five of them, however, have been excavated in their entirety with proper documentation. Human skeletal remains from two such stonecist graves, Nos 5 and 70 at Sondlamagi, Muuksi, were recently radiocarbon-dated as part of a research programme for studying the chronology and mortuary practices of stone-cist graves. Altogether 13 AMS dates comprise most of the burials in the mentioned graves. The results reveal that the graves were built before 1100 and 800 BC, respectively, and are thus slightly older than previously thought, which necessitates the reconsideration of the dating of such graves. In both graves the inhumations outside of stone cists are of a Bronze Age date and are roughly contemporary with the inhumations inside the cists. This is notable since in some stone-cist grave burials of the outside inhumations are much later insertions to the grave. The burnt bones of grave 5, however, may date from the Roman Iron Age, and cremation(s) remains of an Iron Age date may also have been present in grave 70. The comparison of radiocarbon dates and artefact finds suggests that in the mid-Pre-Roman Iron Age grave 70 was used for some (ritual) practices in which burial was of secondary importance if practised at all. Along with these outlined topics, the article discusses a few details concerning the graves’ structure, the burial practices (primary versus secondary) and the find assemblage.

Pollen studies of textile material from an Iron Age grave at Hammerum, Denmark

This article presents the methods employed and the results obtained in pollen studies of a prehistoric grave, identifying a fascinating and productive context for pollen analyses: prehistoric textiles. The methods involved direct sampling from the grave during excavation and various measures aimed at minimizing the risk of contamination, thereby maximising the information gained about various aspects of contemporary prehistoric life. The example used was an Iron Age grave from Hammerum, Denmark which was found to contain very well preserved clothing. The clothing and surrounding sediment were block excavated, providing a unique opportunity to collect samples for pollen analysis from both the textile material and from the underlying grave sediment. This allowed comparison of pollen assemblages from different components within the grave and an assessment of the method itself. The effort involved was rewarded with a set of results which permitted detailed interpretation. Large amounts of pollen of crops and associated anthropogenic plants in the textile sample suggest that agricultural work was the primary source of the pollen embedded in the clothing. In contrast, the pollen assemblages from the sediment samples very clearly reflected the surrounding local vegetation.

Dödsrätt eller stål? Om hanteringen av odöda

Stories about the un-dead are more popular today than ever. At the same time fewer people than ever before have touched or even seen a deceased person. Every society must choose a way to deal with their deceased. In some societies certain actions must be taken to avoid the dead from returning. In the Icelandic saga about Eyrbryggarna the dead come back to haunt the living. The un-dead were tried at the court of the dead and sent away. When excavating a farmstead at Hunnavik we were faced with ghost stories. We found the stories amusing but when the osteological analysis was carried out the probable source of the ghost stories was revealed. The cremated bones found in the floor of a house were the fragmentary remains of a human being. But how did they do to avoid the dead from returning to the land of the living in prehistoric Småland? Which physical actions leave traces for archaeologists to find? One probable trace of such actions is knives thrust into graves as a part of the death ritual. Knives in such a position are found repeatedly in Iron Age graves.

The Grave as a Doorway to the Other World: Architectural Religious Symbolism in Iron Age Graves in Scandinavia

During the last twenty years, the category ‘grave’ has been the subject of increasing debate in Swedish archaeology. It has been recognized that monuments commonly regarded as graves are sometimes also found in cultic contexts other than those associated with death and burial. In many cases, for instance, monuments similar to graves have been erected at cult sites, and seem to have been used in sacrificial practices rather than for burials. According to archaeological, textual and onomastic sources, it was common practice in Old Norse religion to suspend sacrificial victims from trees of from upraised posts, or to deposit offerings at the base of sacred rocks and boulders. In all these cases, the trees, posts and boulders seem to be representation of the World Axis, depicted in cosmological myths as a Cosmic Tree, Pillar or Mountain. I argue that these various representations of the World Axis are also incorporated in the architectonic symbolism of several forms of grave monuments in pre-Christian Scandinavia. The architectonic shape of these monuments could thus be used in several different contexts, since they represented a ‘Cosmic Center’ and a ‘doorway’ to the Other World.

The oldest textiles from sub-Saharan West Africa: woolen facts from Kissi, Burkina Faso

The textile evidence for the archaeological site of Kissi, Burkina Faso, is presented and the implications for the history of weaving in West Africa are discussed. Woolen textiles have been preserved in Iron Age graves of the first millennium AD due to the corrosion of metal objects in the graves. This lucky circumstance adds further examples to the very small corpus of first millennium AD textile finds, pushing back in time the evidence for the demand and use of cloth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Locating archaeological sites in the landscape: a hierarchical approach based on landscape indicators

Heritage conservation and management of landscapes is evident in many recent European policies and national reports on the state of the environment. To assist in the management of heritage resources, we present a landscape approach to the identification of localities with a high probability of possessing cultural heritage interests. The low proportion of sites registered in Norway (an estimated 20%) combined with current rates of damage gives the location of archaeological sites and their vulnerability to land use change high priority. To optimise use of the results for landscape planning, the study describes analysis at two hierarchical scales: (1) the regional level—where the aim was to locate combinations of environmental resources suitable for human use—for application in strategic planning; and (2) the landscape level—where identifying and delimiting cultural environments for local planning was the aim. This paper focuses on one type of archaeological site, Bronze and Iron Age grave mounds. The project used geographic information systems (GIS) for the analysis and mapping of landscape characteristics that indicate zones with a high probability of possessing cultural heritage interest. These zones covered ca. 12% of the forested areas of the region yet captured 94% of the registered grave mounds. New fieldwork confirmed the presence of new sites in the zones identified. Results have increased our understanding of archaeological site location in Norway and the close links between landscape ecology and archaeology.

Regional distribution of Thymus serpyllum: management history and dispersal limitation

Local and regional distributions of Thymus serpyllum, in the southeastern part of Sweden, were examined by combining experimental studies of recruitment limitation and germination, and descriptive studies of distribution range in relation to habitat and management history. The spatial pattern at a regional scale in the county of Södermanland was examined in relation to semi‐natural pastures and graves from the Iron Age. The distribution of T. serpyllum was also examined in two parishes. Thymus serpyllum was exclusively found in managed, unfertilized areas, mainly semi‐natural pastures and to some extent in road verges, and almost always in dry parts. Populations of T. serpyllum were found in 32 of the 42 pastures that contained Iron Age graves, but only in 5 of 42 pastures without graves. The distribution of T. serpyllum was also more or less congruent with the distribution of Iron Age graves, in both parishes. The seed sowing experiment showed that the germination rate, winter survival and recruitment were significantly higher in disturbed (removal of ground cover) plots, for both dry and mesic vegetation. Since the establishment of T. serpyllum occurred both in dry and mesic parts of semi‐natural pastures, whereas T. serpyllum is confined to dry parts, the local limitation of distribution may be due to poor dispersal or due to effects acting on later life cycle stages. The results showed that the regional distribution of T. serpyllum is likely to be dispersal limited recruitment after seed sowing was equally good at sites with or without established populations. Seeds survived and germinated after heat treatment, with temperatures at 60°C. 80°C and 100°C, but germination rates were not higher than in the control. The results of this study indicate that the distribution of T. serpyllum is dependent on human activities, both for dispersal and for the maintenance of established populations. Long, continuous management by grazing is obviously important for the maintenance of these populations. The association with Iron Age graves may reflect either long continuity, or accidental or intentional dispersal by humans.