Iron Age Cemetery Research Articles

Flint tools in Iron Age burials of Tel Erani: Interpretations in the light of mortuary practices

The current study focuses on large geometric flint sickle blades found in association with the deceased unearthed during the excavation of the Iron Age cemetery of Tel Erani. The archaeological meaning and interpretation of such a correlation are examined here through the prism of the system of burials and beliefs of Iron Age communities in the southern Levant and previous periods, where sickles and sickle blades were found in funerary contexts. Flint tools in the southern Levant may be divided into belonging to the deceased and used in life, and those serving as offerings to the dead by the community. The presence of sickles and flint sickle blades in burials of the southern Levant from the Chalcolithic period to the Iron Age may be interpreted as part of a ritual symbolizing a relationship between the deceased and agriculture. A concluding interpretation of these findings is presented here based on anthropological and archaeological parallels.

Temporal pattern of dental caries at the western flank of the Central Plateau of Iran, c. 2700 BCE – 1600 CE

ObjectiveTo analyze the overall frequency and inter-tooth patterns of caries in three populations from ancient cemeteries located along the western border of the Central Iranian Plateau as a means to explore whether the populations of Iran had greater access to fermentable sugars after the establishment of the great empires. MaterialsDental collections from Kafarved-Varzaneh (Early Bronze Age, MNI=66), Estark-Joshaqan (Iron Age, MNI=57), Tappeh Poustchi (Timurid and Safavid Period, MNI=34), together with comparative data from NE Syria. MethodsFrequencies of dental caries per tooth categories, location and size of carious lesions are analyzed using Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence, Correspondence Analysis, χ2 and Kruskal-Wallis tests. ResultsThere are minimal differences in overall frequencies of carious lesions at Iranian sites, regardless of the chronology, but notable differences at Syrian sites. The inter-tooth pattern at the Iron Age cemetery in Estark appears distinctly different than the other Iranian sites and the comparative samples from Syria. ConclusionsDivergent subsistence strategies may be linked with different inter-tooth patterns since people buried at Estark were mobile herders, while the other cemeteries were used by settled farmers. SignificanceThis comprehensive research on dental caries in three chronologically diverse populations in Iran sheds light on the association between dental caries and subsistence strategies, and introduces the Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence to explore inter-tooth carious patterns, which may prove useful to other researchers seeking to understand the relationships between subsistence, diet, and the presence of carious lesions. LimitationsThe studied sample size is relatively small and therefore its temporal/regional distribution produces low-resolution results. Suggestions for further researchMore systematic research on the patterns of dental caries is necessary to produce more fine-grained reconstructions of diet and subsistence in Iran and around the globe.

Palynological Data from The Iron Age Cemeteries at Sâncrai-Darvas (Alba County)

This study discusses some aspects of environmental reconstruction through the palynological analysis of soil samples recovered from archaeological contexts belonging to the Iron Age at Sâncrai-Darvas. The microscopic fossils included in this study are pollen, fungal spores, microscopic charcoal and eggs of intestinal parasites. Pollen taxa were divided into categories of different types of land cover and land-use, while fungal spores were classified between coprophilous (fungi that grow on animal dung) and plant pathogens (parasitic/smut fungi). Intestinal parasites include two species infecting both humans and animals: roundworm and tapeworm. The abundance of microcharcoal particles suggests both regional biomasses burning in association with climate conditions, as well as in situ fires depending on the archaeological context (e.g. cremation). The overall palynological aspects suggest mixed agro-pastoral practices throughout the different archaeological horizons.

The Early Iron Age Cemetery of Ḥorvat Tevet: Life and Death in a Rural Community in the Jezreel Valley

The Early Iron Age Cemetery of Ḥorvat Tevet: Life and Death in a Rural Community in the Jezreel Valley

Dynamic Funerary Monuments of North-western Europe: Chronological Modelling of a Late Neolithic–Pre-Roman Iron Age Cemetery Complex at Mang de Bargen, Northern Germany

This study presents the first extensive radiocarbon dating programme of Bronze Age material from northern Germany, and it combines radiocarbon dates, relative typo-chronological date ranges, and stratigraphic data within a Bayesian chronological framework. We estimate the cemetery complex at Mang de Bargen (Bornhöved, distr. Segeberg, Schleswig-Holstein) to be in use for more than two millennia, which is exceptionally long in northern Germany and in a wider European context. The site provides a unique insight into the dynamic nature of burial monuments and associated burial practices, from the Late Neolithic and into the Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 2500–50 bc). The barrow building tradition lasted around a millennium (c. 2350 –1300 bc), with several barrows in concurrent use. The barrows were persistently re-used as burial ground, both within ‘living memory’ of the primary graves, but also long after. The burial intensity varied over the cemetery’s use-life, with distinct peaks in the Late Neolithic, when the first barrows were erected; in the Older Bronze Age when more barrows were erected; in the Younger Bronze Age, when secondary cremation graves were added to existing barrows; and finally in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, with the addition of an urnfield. The funerary rituals vary considerably over the period: from inhumation to cremation, and from primary and secondary graves in barrows to flat graves. Cremation was introduced in the 14th century bc but inhumation and cremation were used in parallel for around a century before the former ritual was abandoned c. 1300 bc. The study provides absolute chronological distributions of the grave types present at Mang de Bargen and shows them to be comparable to other sites at a regional and over-regional scale, successfully demonstrating how new types were quickly adopted across large parts of north-western Europe.

Application of natural sciences methodology in archaeological study of Iron Age burials in Latvia: pilot study.

Natural sciences provide several modern methodologies that could be successfully applied in archaeological studies. In this pilot study, archaeological human remains from two Iron Age cemeteries (7th-twelfth centuries AD), Lejasbitēni and Čunkāni-Dreņģeri, which are located in different regions of Latvia, were studied. We applied ancient DNA (aDNA) and tooth enamel peptide analysis to determine the biological sex of the individuals. In addition, aDNA analysis was used to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. In most cases, the results of aDNA analysis regarding the biological sex of individuals coincided with the gender assigned based on grave orientation and grave goods. The results of sex determination using peptide analysis in all four individuals for whom data were available matched the possible gender. Of the 17 samples that had sufficient DNA for sequencing, seven samples had enough reads to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. The H2a2a, I4a1, H2a2a1, and H16c mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Lejasbitēni cemetery, while the T2b and K1a + 150 mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Čunkāni-Dreņģeri cemetery. Overall, the obtained results demonstrated the feasibility of applying aDNA and tooth enamel peptide analysis for biological sex determination within archaeological studies. The availability of human aDNA data will be highly useful for investigating the demographic history and social structures in Iron Age Latvia.

Large‐scale mass movements recorded in the sediments of Lake Hallstatt (Austria)–evidence for recurrent natural hazards at a UNESCO World Heritage site

AbstractThe Bronze to Iron Age underground salt mining complex of Hallstatt (Austria) is widely recognised for its cultural importance and wealth of archaeological artefacts. However, while the daily life in the salt mines is archaeologically well documented and environmental effects of the mining activity have been investigated recently, the impact of natural hazards on the prehistoric mining community is still poorly understood. For instance, while it is well established that the prehistoric underground mines have repeatedly been destroyed by large‐scale mass movements, only little is known about the characteristics and extent of these events as well as about mass‐movement recurrence during more recent times. To shed light on past mass‐movement activity in the vicinity of the Hallstatt salt mines, we investigated sediment cores from adjacent Lake Hallstatt. Within the regular lake sediments we identified three large‐scale event deposits, which are interpreted to originate from spontaneous or seismically induced mass movements in the mid‐19th and late 9th century ce and the mid‐4th century bce. While the age of the latter event is in good agreement with the abandonment of the famous Iron Age cemetery at Hallstatt, the younger events indicate that large‐scale mass movements also occurred repeatedly during the Common Era.

Local amphorae from the Tyrian cemetery of al-Bass: typology, chronology, function and Mediterranean connections

The aim of this paper is a detailed analysis of the local amphorae employed as cinerary urns in tombs of the Iron Age cemetery of al-Bass, in Tyre. This form appeared around the second quarter of the 8th century BC, in an advanced stage of the Late Iron Age, and represents an apparent novelty in the ceramic array of the central Levant. From a typological perspective, this form is connected to the local plain storage-jars; from a technical point of view follow the morphological and decorative traditions of the local workshops; and they seem to be functionally related to Cypriot imports. However, the local amphorae cannot be considered imitations of the latter and neither seem to have substituted them. The apparent reason of the existence of those amphorae consists of changes in the consumption of wine, and their appearance does not seem to be an isolated phenomenon. Other parts of the Mediterranean under direct Levantine influence experienced similar typological phenomena. This circumstance led to the conclusion that some sort of trend in the consumption of wine existed during the 8th century BC, which apparently did not last much longer in the Levant, but continued overseas.

Gioulika-Olga Christakopoulou, To Die in Style! The Residential Lifestyle of Feasting and Dying in Iron Age Stamna, Greece

This short essay presents some of the most interesting information from a major Early Iron Age cemetery in the province of Aetolia, in North-West Mainland Greece. Its presentation is rather uneven – the location of the site is not even immediately presented in the opening text, and there is no overall plan of the site – although the content is important enough to make it worth the effort. Over 600 tombs of the earliest Iron Age, the Protogeometric (PG) era (ca. 1050-900 BC), have so far been uncovered in a burial zone some 4km in length along the periphery of Lake Aetolikon, both cremations and inhumations. Several tombs appear to belong to elite ‘warrior’ males, indicating a ranked society.

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

The Enigma of the Hyksos, Volume 1: ASOR Conference Boston 2017—ICAANE Conference Munich 2018—Collected Papers

All equal in the presence of death? A quantitative analysis of the Early Iron Age cemeteries of Knossos, Crete

The Early Iron Age cemeteries of Knossos, Crete, represent the richest source of archaeological material at the site for the period between the end of the Bronze Age and the emergence of the Archaic polis, or city-state. However, despite well-published excavation reports on the two largest burial grounds and studies dealing with various artefacts and individual tombs therein, no substantial comparative, quantitative analysis has yet been published. Such an analysis is provided here, examining both the synchronic and diachronic variation among the tombs of these two cemeteries. Through a range of quantitative techniques, this study isolates two significant patterns of burial among the largest tombs at both cemeteries and considers the broader social contexts within which these were constructed and used. The relationship between the patrons of these tombs and the development of the city-state of Knossos is also discussed. This paper demonstrates the potential for quantitative analyses to contribute to nuanced, context-specific theories of social practice, and advocates their wider application to the archaeological record of the Cretan Early Iron Age. It also serves as a demonstration of maximal research reproducibility, with the full datasets and code underpinning the analysis made freely available to download and use.

Middle Iron Age Cemetery from Alsónyék, Hungary

In 2008 a section of a Middle Iron Age cemetery was unearthed at Alsónyék (Tolna County, Hungary). The 16 graves can be dated broadly to the 5th and maybe the early 4th century BC. The significance of this discovery lies in the diversity of burial customs and grave goods as well as in the fact that sites from this period are relatively rare in Transdanubia. In addition, already these 16 graves make the cemetery the second largest Middle Iron Age graveyard in the region between the Kapos and Sava Rivers.

Novajidrány–Sárvár-Erdészház : A Celtic Cemetery at the Foothills of Cserehát, Hungary

At the end of the 4th century BC, and the beginning of the 3rd century BC a Celtic population wave reached the eastern parts of the Carpathian Basin, including Northeastern Hungary. The elements of the funerary rite and the archaeological finds attest to the presence of the newly arrived communities in the cemeteries of the region. The present study serves as a preliminary report on the research results of a Celtic cemetery in the Hernád valley excavated in 2019. The site of Novajidrány–Sárvár-erdészház was in use between the late 4th century BC the earliest and the 3rd century BC and it fits well into the row of Late Iron Age cemeteries in the region. Both cremated and inhumated burials were documented with richly accompanied metal and pottery grave goods. Appearing next to the typically La Tène-styled finds, the graves also contained – mainly in the ceramic assemblages – Scythian-influenced forms which can be explained by the Celtic and Scythian cohabitation in the region during the Late Iron Age.

Isotopic investigations of human cremations from the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age cemetery of Ljubljana – Dvorišče SAZU, Slovenia

The cemetery at Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana, Slovenia, was in use for a long period, continuously from the Late Bronze Age into the Early Iron Age. More than 300 excavated graves offer a great potential for the analysis and discussion of chronological issues, demography, social inequalities, funeral attires, as well as burial customs within the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age societies. This site was thus chosen as a reference point for our pilot study on mobility and migration in prehistoric Slovenia. The article presents results of the analysis of strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) performed on the 32 cremated petrous part of the temporal bone (pars petrosa) from the cemetery Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana and 9 animal bones of small mammals from other sites in the region for baseline information. The stable isotope analysis and the study of mobility in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age presented here is one of the first such investigations involving the osteological material from the south-eastern Alpine region.

The Bronze and Iron Age populations of the Armenian Highland in the genetic history of Armenians.

To investigate the biological diversity of the late Bronze and Iron Age populations in the Armenian Highland by nonmetric cranial traits, evaluate the genetic continuity in the development of the modern Armenian gene pool, and compare the results obtained with genetic data. Twenty-eight nonmetric cranial traits were scored on 498 adult crania from different late Bronze and Iron Age cemeteries, as well as from modern Armenians and other European populations. We carried out a biodistance analysis between populations using the mean measure of divergence (MMD) statistics, tested the spatial-temporal model of population structure, and assessed the diversity within the late Bronze and early Iron Ages by using the values of variability index (Fst). The biodistance analysis revealed a close relationship among different ancient Armenian populations and between the average frequencies of the three sequential periods (late Bronze Age, early Iron Age I and II) and modern Armenians. A gradual increase of variability (Fst) within the three successive periods was observed. The analysis of nonmetric trait data reflects deep roots and continuity in the formation of the Armenian population. Since at least the Late Bronze Age, owing to permanent isolation, no significant changes have occurred in the Armenian gene pool. An increase in variability over the successive periods reflects the process of population differentiation from a single gene pool while maintaining average trait frequencies. The congruence of the results obtained with the genetic data confirms, once more, the possibility of using nonmetric cranial traits as a proxy for genetic markers.

The Iron Age period at the Sarand necropolis in northwestern Iran

The northwestern region of Iran has an important place in the archaeological studies of the Iron Age of Iran, eastern Turkey and the southern Caucasus. In this geographic zone, several Iron Age necropolises have been investigated until the present moment, one of the most important of them being the Sarand necropolis. The archaeological excavations here led to the discovery of 36 tombs belonging to the Iron Age. The graves in this cemetery are rectangular stone chambers with single or multiple burials. In some of them, secondary and disturbed graves are also present. The burial status in association with the gender of the dead shows great variability and often there is direct correlation between the biological sex of the individual and the grave goods. Our study focuses on one of the graves of this rich cemetery following a descriptive-analytical approach by comparison to other key sites of the Iron Age of Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan. The results of this study indicate a cultural similarity between this particular necropolis and other Iron Age cemeteries in Iran and Azerbaijan.

Женские погребения могильника Кичигино I в контексте особенностей погребального обряда ранних кочевников Южного Урала

The article concerns female burials in the Early Iron Age cemetery Kichigino I. In total, 10 kurgans were investigated. The mounds contained burials dated from 7th to 2nd—4th centuries BC. At least seven women were buried in the kurgans. There were burials of varying degree of preservation. Five burials were provided with anthropological identification. The age of the buried at the time of death is from 25—35 to 45—55 years old. Grave goods included numerous ornaments, including gold jewelry, ritual and domestic items and weaponry. Three burials from mound 3, all related to the Early Sarmatian period (4th century BC), were especially interesting in terms of grave goods. Large quiver sets of arrows with bronze heads were found in two graves (pits 3 and 4). Items of the high social status (gold ornaments in the animal style, bronze vessel and ritual things) were discovered in grave 5. In general, female burials from the cemetery Kichigino I fit well into the context of the funeral ritual of the Southern Ural early nomads both in terms of grave goods and the way of disposal of the dead.

The Hereid cemetery: relational agency and topography within the Iron Age mortuary landscape of Hardanger, western Norway

This paper emphasizes the landscape as a key factor in the long-term standing of one of Norway's largest prehistoric burial grounds: the Iron Age cemetery of Hereid, located in the village of Eidfjord in the Hardanger region. A recent field investigation generated important new data on the Hereid site, which has contributed to the high-resolution analysis of the cemetery presented here. The paper explores the wider ‘meshwork’ of people, animals, farm settlement, outfield resources and tracks within a new materialist perspective to argue that the Hardanger landscape served as a co-agent when constructing a regional mortuary order. Theories of relational agency are used to investigate whether Hereid's geography and topography can explain its scale and continuity. It is argued that Eidfjord constituted a focal point for wayfaring to and from the Hardangervidda mountain plateau, and the significance of the site is closely tied to its favourable location with regard to these communication routes and outfield resources. Beyond this case, the funerary settings in other large and medium sized cemeteries in Hardanger mirror Hereid remarkably. They all draw our attention to landscapes that facilitated movement and demonstrate the societal importance of burials and cemeteries in a long time perspective.

Kani Koter, Iron Age Cemetery From Iranian Kurdistan

ABSTRACT Kani Koter cemetery is located in Iranian Kurdistan, close to Dere Pemeyan (or Persian Dare Panbedan) village, between the ancient sites of Ziwiye and Karafto Cave (Figure 1). In this article, we discuss the material discovered from one of the graves in this cemetery, its chronology, and cultural associations. Unfortunately, tomb robbers plundered this grave, completely ruining the tomb's stratigraphic context. Fortunately, in 2016 the Cultural Heritage Organization of Kurdistan rescued all of the stolen artefacts, and today the collection is stored at the Sanandaj Museum. The grave has yielded a number of elaborately decorated objects that belong nominally to Assyrian, Urartian and Mannaean artistic traditions, with the date for the finds being established by means of comparisons with Assyrian and Urartian artefacts.

Goth migration induced changes in the matrilineal genetic structure of the central-east European population

For years, the issues related to the origin of the Goths and their early migrations in the Iron Age have been a matter of hot debate among archaeologists. Unfortunately, the lack of new independent data has precluded the evaluation of the existing hypothesis. To overcome this problem, we initiated systematic studies of the populations inhabiting the contemporary territory of Poland during the Iron Age. Here, we present an analysis of mitochondrial DNA isolated from 27 individuals (collectively called the Mas-VBIA group) excavated from an Iron Age cemetery (dated to the 2nd-4th century A.D.) attributed to Goths and located near Masłomęcz, eastern Poland. We found that Mas-VBIA has similar genetic diversity to present-day Asian populations and higher diversity than that of contemporary Europeans. Our studies revealed close genetic links between the Mas-VBIA and two other Iron Age populations from the Jutland peninsula and from Kowalewko, located in western Poland. We disclosed the genetic connection between the Mas-VBIA and ancient Pontic-Caspian steppe groups. Similar connections were absent in the chronologically earlier Kowalewko and Jutland peninsula populations. The collected results seem to be consistent with the historical narrative that assumed that the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia; then, at least part of the Goth population moved south through the territory of contemporary Poland towards the Black Sea region, where they mixed with local populations and formed the Chernyakhov culture. Finally, a fraction of the Chernyakhov population returned to the southeast region of present-day Poland and established the archaeological formation called the “Masłomęcz group”.