Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response Research Articles

Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response to the Intense Geomagnetic Storm of 10th -11th May 2024 over Low, Mid and High Latitude Regions

In this paper, we investigated the response of ionospheric Total electron content (TEC) to the intense geomagnetic storm of 10th - 11th May 2024 using 6 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations: BAKE (Geog. Lat.64.33o N; Geog. Lon. 96.02o W), BELE (Geog. Lat. 1.41o S; Geog. Lon. 48.46o W), MBAR (Geog. Lat. 0.60o S; Geog. Lon. 30.74o E), SUTH (Geog. Lat. 32.38o S; Geog. Lon. 20.81o E), BJFS (Geog. Lat. 39.61o N; Geo. Lon. 115.89o E) and DUND (Geog. Lat. 45.88o S; Geog. Lon.170.60o E) situated over low, mid and high latitude regions. The GPS-TEC data was extracted, processed and used to plot vertical total electron content (VTEC) verses universal time (UT) from 8th to 13th May 2024 for each GNSS receiver station. A contour plot of TEC variation was also plotted for each station from 8th to 13th May 2024. The results showed TEC enhancing significantly at the beginning of the storm, during daytime at the geomagnetic equator, with the exception of MBAR, where TEC increased at night. This was attributed to the effect of prompt penetration of electric field (PPEF). A reduction in TEC was also noted on 11th May 2024, during the recovery phase over all the GNSS receiver stations. This was attributed to the effect of the disturbance dynamo electric field (DDEF) and composition change. The contour plots showed diurnal variation in TEC concentration over each GNSS receiver station. The TEC concentration however reduced during the storm period.

Seasonal Features of the Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response at Low Latitudes during Three Selected Geomagnetic Storms

In the present paper, the response of the ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) at low latitudes during several geomagnetic storms occurring in different seasons of the year is investigated. In the analysis of the ionospheric response, the following three geomagnetic events were selected: (i) 23–24 April 2023; (ii) 22–24 June 2015 and (iii) 16 December 2006. Global TEC data were used, with geographic coordinates recalculated with Rawer’s modified dip (modip) latitude, which improved the accuracy of the representation of the ionospheric response at low and mid-latitudes. By decomposition of the zonal distribution of the relative deviation of the TEC values from the hourly medians, the spatial distribution of the anomalies, the dependence of the response on the local time and their evolution during the selected events were analyzed. As a result of the study, it was found that the positive response (i.e., an increase in electron density relative to quiet conditions) in low latitudes occurs at the modip latitudes 30° N and 30° S. An innovative result related to the observed responses during the considered events is that they turn out to be relatively stationary. The longitude variation in the observed maxima changes insignificantly during the storms. Depending on the season, there is an asymmetry between the two hemispheres, which can be explained by the differences in the meridional neutral circulation in different seasons.

Analysis of ionospheric TEC response to solar and geomagnetic activities at different solar activity stages

Studying the relationship of total electron content (TEC) to solar or geomagnetic activities at different solar activity stages can provide a reference for ionospheric modeling and prediction. On the basis of solar activity indices, geomagnetic activity parameters, and ionospheric TEC data at different solar activity stages, this study analyzes the overall variation relationships of solar and geomagnetic activities with ionospheric TEC, the characteristics of the quasi-27-day periodic oscillations of the three variables at different stages, and the delayed TEC response of solar activity by conducting correlation analysis, Butterworth band-pass filtering, Fourier transform, and time lag analysis. The following results are obtained. (1) TEC exhibits a significant linear relationship with solar activity at different solar activity stages. The correlation coefficients |R| are arranged as follows: |R|EUV > |R|F10.7 > |R|sunspot number. No significant linear relationship exists between TEC and geomagnetic activity parameters (|R| < 0.35). (2) TEC, solar activity indices, and geomagnetic activity parameters have a period of 10.5 years. The maximum amplitudes of the Fourier spectrum for TEC and solar activity indices are nearly 27 days and those of geomagnetic activity parameters are nearly 27 and 13.5 days. (3) The deviations of the quasi-27-day significant periodic oscillation of TEC and solar activity indices are consistent. (4) No evident relationship exists between the quasi-27-day periodic oscillation of TEC and geomagnetic activity parameters. (5) The delay time of TEC for the 10.7 cm solar radio flux and extreme ultraviolet is always consistent, whereas that for sunspot number varies at each stage.

Near‐Real‐Time Analysis of the Ionospheric Response to the 15 January 2022 Hunga Tonga‐Hunga Ha'apai Volcanic Eruption

AbstractWe present a near‐real‐time (NRT) scenario of analysis of ionospheric response to the 15 January 2022 Hunga Tonga‐Hunga Ha'apai eruption by using Global Navigation Satellite Systems data in the near‐field (in the vicinity of the volcano), and in the far‐field (Japan, North America, and South America). We introduce a new method to determine instantaneous velocities using an interferometric approach and using the time derivative of the total electron content (TEC). Moreover, for the first time, we propose a novel method that automatically estimates the apparent propagation velocity of ionospheric disturbances from NRT travel‐time diagrams. By using our new methods, we analyzed the dynamics of co‐volcanic ionospheric disturbances generated by the Hunga‐Tonga eruption, and we estimated the first propagation velocity in the near‐field to be ∼800–950 m/s, subsequently decreasing to ∼600 m/s. Based on these values, we conclude that in the near‐field, we detect ionospheric signatures of acoustic waves. In the far field, the apparent velocity of ionospheric disturbances was estimated to be between 277 and 365 m/s, which corresponds to the propagation of the Lamb wave. It is important to note that our new methods can successfully perform at low spatial resolution networks and with 30‐s cadence data. Also, they enable NRT spatio‐temporal analysis of ionospheric TEC response to smaller‐amplitude events.

Ionospheric total electron content response to September-2017 geomagnetic storm and December-2019 annular solar eclipse over Sri Lankan region

The geomagnetic storm and solar eclipse are two important transient phenomena that crucially influence the quiet time ionospheric behavior over the low latitudes. The present study investigates the ionospheric total electron content response to the September-2017 geomagnetic storm and December-2019 annular solar eclipse from global navigation satellite system derived total electron content observations over the Sri Lankan equatorial and low latitude region. Four global navigation satellite system stations at Jaffna (1.210 N), Colombo (1.520 S), Kegalle (1.200 S) and Kalutara (1.840 S) within Sri Lanka were used for the study. The results accentuate a noticeable increase/decrease in the ionospheric total electron content during both the events. The results confirm a positive ionospheric storm effect during the solar flare associated severe geomagnetic storm in September 2017 with the total electron content enhancement of about ~11 total electron content units during the main phase of the storm with the highest variation at Kegalle. The abrupt vertical total electron content flipping during the storm are attributed to the prompt penetration electric fields followed by the disturbance dynamo electric fields during the recovery phase. Concerning the annular solar eclipse in December 2019, the four major features such as pre-ascension, major depression, sunset ascension, and secondary depression were perceptible in the total electron content variation at all stations. Moreover, the ionosphere experienced a clear vertical total electron content depletion of about ~4 total electron content units during the maximum phase of the eclipse with a percentual deviation of 23% over Jaffna and 15% over Colombo than the average quiet day values, indicating an interplay between photoionization production and recombination due to temporary solar interruption. The results would strengthen the understanding of ionospheric variability of the southern hemisphere in the Indian longitude sector.

Ionospheric total electron content response to annular solar eclipse on June 21, 2020

The effects of physical events on the ionosphere structure is an important field of study, especially for navigation and radio communication. The paper presents the spatio-temporal ionospheric TEC response to the recent annular solar eclipse on June 21, 2020, which spans across two continents, Africa and Asia, and 14 countries. This eclipse took place on the same day as the June Solstice. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) based TEC data of the Global Ionosphere Maps (GIMs), 9 International GNSS Service (IGS) stations and FORMOSAT-7/COSMIC-2 (F7/C2) were utilized to analyze TEC response during the eclipse. The phases of the TEC time series were determined by taking the difference of the observed TEC values on eclipse day from the previous 5-day median TEC values. The results showed clear depletions in the TEC time series on June 21. These decreases were between 1 and 9 TECU (15–60%) depending on the location of IGS stations. The depletions are relatively higher at the stations close to the path of annular eclipse than those farther away. Furthermore, a reduction of about −10 TECU in the form of an equatorial plasma bubble (EPB) was observed in GIMs at ~20° away from the equator towards northpole, between 08:00–11:00 UT where its maximum phase is located in southeast Japan. Additionally, an overall depletion of ~10% was observed in F7/C2 derived TEC at an altitude of 240 km (hmF2) in all regions affected by the solar eclipse, whereas, significant TEC fluctuations between the altitudes of 100 km − 140 km were analyzed using the Savitzky-Golay smoothing filter. To prove TEC depletions are not caused by space weather, the variation of the sunspot number (SSN), solar wind (VSW), disturbance storm-time (Dst), and Kp indices were investigated from 16th to 22nd June. The quiet space weather before and during the solar eclipse proved that the observed depletions in the TEC time series and profiles were caused by the annular solar eclipse.

Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response to the Great American Solar Eclipse of 21 August 2017

AbstractUsing a comprehensive database of ~4,000 ground‐based Global Navigation Satellite Systems stations, we investigate the ionosphere's response to the 21 August 2017 solar eclipse. The high‐resolution, two‐dimensional maps of the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) were constructed using combined GPS and GLONASS measurements. Solar eclipse resulted in a continent‐size TEC decrease with stronger effects up to 50% over the U.S. eastern coast. Along the totality path within an area of 75% obscuration TEC decreased by ~30–40%. We reveal a latitudinal dependence of the TEC response with equatorward expansion of TEC depletion. Recovery signature in the form of large‐scale TEC enhancement up to 20–30% occurred in posteclipse period. Swarm and DMSP satellites encountered the eclipse‐induced plasma density depletion and posteclipse increase at 450 km height and above. These effects were associated with downward plasma fluxes from topside ionosphere/plasmasphere and thermospheric changes.

The auroral ionosphere TEC response to an interplanetary shock

AbstractThis letter investigates the global total electron content (TEC) response in the auroral ionosphere to an interplanetary shock on 8 March 2012, using GPS TEC data from three pierce point chains. One is a longitudinal chain along ~65° magnetic latitude (MLAT) from ~19 magnetic local time (MLT) through dayside to 03 MLT clockwise; one meridional chain is around 14 MLT from 88° to 59° MLAT; and the third one is a chain along ~75° MLAT from ~14 to 00 MLT clockwise. The first chain clearly presents a TEC signal propagation away from ~14 MLT, indicating the shock impact location. Such a propagation is well consistent with the diffuse shock aurora propagation, and the impact location is well predicted by the shock normal direction calculated using the Geotail solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field data. The meridional chain reveals a very fast TEC signal equatorward expansion at ~45 km/s, which is the manifestation of the shock impact and further compression near the subsolar magnetopause. While TEC along the high‐latitude chain varies randomly, lacking any pattern, it is consistent with the discrete aurora dynamics along the poleward boundary of the auroral oval. These findings strongly support the shock aurora mechanisms of adiabatic compression and field‐aligned current establishment or enhancement, suggest that due to the same mechanisms a shock‐generated TEC variation is a “duplication” of the shock aurora from the global picture to the auroral forms and their dynamics, and open the door for the TEC to be an important tool to understand the solar wind and geospace coupling. These results, for the first time, reveal the prompt, intense, and global ionospheric TEC response to the interplanetary fast‐forward shock.

Modelling total electron content during geomagnetic storm conditions using empirical orthogonal functions and neural networks

AbstractIt has been shown in ionospheric research that modelling total electron content (TEC) during storm conditions is a big challenge. In this study, TEC modelling was performed over Sutherland (32.38°S, 20.81°E, 41.09°S geomagnetic), South Africa, during storm conditions, using a combination of empirical orthogonal function (EOF) and regression analyses techniques. The neural network (NN) technique was also applied to the same TEC data set, and its output was compared with TEC modeled using the EOF model. TEC was derived from GPS observations, and a geomagnetic storm was defined for Dst≤−50 nT. The hour of the day and the day number of the year, F10.7p and A indices, were chosen as inputs for the modeling techniques to take into account diurnal and seasonal variation of TEC, solar, and geomagnetic activities, respectively. Both EOF and NN models were developed using GPS TEC data for storm days counted from 1999 to 2013 and tested on different storms. For interpolation, the EOF and NN models were validated on storms that occurred during high and low solar activity periods (storms of 2000 and 2006), while for extrapolation the validation was done for the storms of 2014 and 2015, identified based on the provisional Dst index data. A comparison of the modeled TEC with the observed TEC showed that both EOF and NN models perform well for storms with nonsignificant ionospheric TEC response and storms that occurred during period of low solar activity. For storms with significant TEC response, TEC magnitude is well captured during the nighttime and early morning, but short‐term features, TEC enhancement, and depression are not sufficiently captured by the models. Statistically, the NN model performs 12.79% better than the EOF model on average, over all storm periods considered. Furthermore, it has been shown that the EOF and NN models developed for a specific station can be used to estimate TEC over other locations within a latitudinal and longitudinal coverage of 8.7° and 10.6°, respectively. This is an important result as it reduces the data dimensionality problem for computational purposes.

Ionospheric TEC estimation with the signals of various geostationary navigational satellites

With the development of receiver equipment and GNSS and SBAS constellations, the coherent dual-frequency L-band transmissions are now available from a number of geostationary satellites. These signals can be used for ionospheric total electron content (TEC) estimation. The quality of these data, i.e., the level of noise in such TEC estimation is of great interest and importance. We present results of comparisons of noise patterns in TEC estimation using signals of geostationary satellites of augmentation systems such as the Indian GAGAN, the European EGNOS and the American WAAS, as well as the signals from the Chinese Beidou navigation system. We used data from two receiving sites in the European part of Russia and the USA, which are equipped with JAVAD Delta receivers. We found out that the noise level in TEC estimation based on geostationary satellites of the Beidou system is one order smaller than that for SBAS and corresponds to those of GPS/GLONASS at the same elevation angles. Typically, the TEC RMS was about 0.05 TECU for GPS/GLONASS satellites at elevation range 5---15°, 0.06 TECU for Beidou geostationary satellites at elevation range 15---25°, 0.6 TECU for GAGAN at elevation range 15---25°, 0.7 TECU for WAAS at elevation 45°, and 5 TECU for EGNOS at elevation 20°. We also discuss the capabilities of geostationary TEC observations in connection with the recent G4 geomagnetic storm of March 2015 using six IGS MGEX stations in the American, Southeast Asian and Australian sectors. We demonstrate the hemispheric asymmetry in the ionospheric TEC response during this storm.

Threshold magnitude for Ionospheric TEC response to earthquakes

We have analyzed ionospheric response to earthquakes with magnitudes of 4.1–8.8 which occurred under quiet geomagnetic conditions in different regions of the world (the Baikal region, Kuril Islands, Japan, Greece, Indonesia, China, New Zealand, Salvador, and Chile). This investigation relied on measurements of total electron content (TEC) variations made by ground-based dual-frequency GPS receivers. To perform the analysis, we selected earthquakes with permanent GPS stations installed close by. Data processing has revealed that after 4.1–6.3-magnitude earthquakes wave disturbances in TEC variations are undetectable. We have thoroughly analyzed publications over the period of 1965–2013 which reported on registration of wave TIDs after earthquakes. This analysis demonstrated that the magnitude of the earthquakes having a wave response in the ionosphere was no less than 6.5. Based on our results and on the data from other researchers, we can conclude that there is a threshold magnitude (near 6.5) below which there are no pronounced earthquake-induced wave TEC disturbances. The probability of detection of post-earthquake TIDs with a magnitude close to the threshold depends strongly on geophysical conditions. In addition, reliable identification of the source of such TIDs generally requires many GPS stations in an earthquake zone. At low magnitudes, seismic energy is likely to be insufficient to generate waves in the neutral atmosphere which are able to induce TEC disturbances observable at the level of background fluctuations.

Impact factor for the ionospheric total electron content response to solar flare irradiation

On the basis of ionospheric total electron content (TEC) enhancement over the subsolar region during flares, and combined with data of the peak X-ray flux in the 0.1-0.8 nm region, EUV increase in the 0.1-50 and 26-34 nm regions observed by the SOHO Solar EUV Monitor EUV detector, also with the flare location on the solar disc, the relationship among these parameters is analyzed statistically. Results show that the correlation between ionospheric TEC enhancement and the soft X-ray peak flux in the 0.1-0.8 nm region is poor, and the flare location on the solar disc is one noticeable factor for the impact strength of the ionospheric TEC during solar flares. Statistics indicate clearly that, at the same X-ray class, the flares near the solar disc center have much larger effects on the ionospheric TEC than those near the solar limb region. For the EUV band, although TEC enhancements and EUV flux increases in both the 0.1-50 and 26-34 nm regions have a positive relation, the flux increase in the 26-34 nm region during flares is more correlative with TEC enhancements. Considering the possible connection between the flare location on the solar disc and the solar atmospheric absorption to the EUV irradiation, an Earth zenith angle is introduced, and an empirical formula describing the relationship of TEC enhancement and traditional flare parameters, including flare X-ray peak and flare location information, is given. In addition, the X-ray class of the flare occurring on 4 November 2003, which led the saturation of the X-ray detector on GOES 12, is estimated using this empirical formula, and the estimated class is X44.

Dependence of the ionospheric response on the solar flare parameters based on the theoretical modeling and GPS data

The measurements of an increase in the total electron content (TEC) of the ionosphere during solar flares, obtained based on the GPS data, indicated that up to 30% of TEC increments corresponded to the ionospheric regions above 300 km altitude in some cases, and TEC increased mainly below altitudes of 300 km in other cases. The theoretical model of the ionosphere and plasmasphere was used to study the obtained effects. The altitude-time variations in the charged particle density in the ionospheric region from 100 to 1000 km were used depending on the solar flare spectrum. An analysis of the modeling results indicated that an intensification of the flare UV emission in the 55–65 and 85–95 nm spectral ranges results in a pronounced increase in the electron density in the topside ionosphere (above 300 km). The experimental dependences of the ionospheric TEC response amplitude on the localization and peak power of flares on the Sun in the X-ray range, obtained based on the GPS data, are also presented in the work.

Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response to the December 26, 2004 North Sumatra Earthquake

Problem statement: Ionospheric precursors of earthquake have been studied by scientists and seismologists. This study aims at examining the relationship between the ionosphere and earthquake precursors. The effects of the anomalous electric field that penetrates the ionosphere on the electron concentration can be measured experimentally. This study reports on the variability of the Total Electron Content (TEC) during the December 26, 2004 earthquake in North Sumatra (epicentre: 3.295°N, 95.982°E) which measured 9.3 on the Richter scale. Approach: The ionospheric TEC near North Sumatra between December 19 to 31 was calculated between 22:00 and 24:00 and between 02:00 and 06:00 local time (LT) using a dual frequency Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. It was recorded for a period of 13 days, which is seven days before and five days after the earthquake. The GPS data was taken from the Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia in the north of Malaysia (4.1°N, 99.8°E), which is near North Sumatra. Four sets of data were selected from different GPS satellites that passed near the epicentre. Results: Results show good agreement with the existence of earthquake precursors. TEC variability was detected at night and in the early morning of 21 December 2004 (five days before the earthquake) and 25 December 2004 (a day before). Findings show an increase in the electron concentration level at the station closest to the epicentre and the TEC varies from 2-10 TEC unit. Conclusion/Recommendations: The findings correspond with previous research and literature in this field. Further studies on the parameters that cause the change in the ionospheric TEC due to earthquakes are needed if this is to be used as part of an earthquake early warning prediction system.

Ionospheric Total Electron Content Response to the December 26, 2004 North Sumatra Earthquake

Problem statement: Ionospheric precursors of earthquake have been studied by scientists and seismologists. This study aims at examining the relationship between the ionosphere and earthquake precursors. The effects of the anomalous electric field that penetrates the ionosphere on the electron concentration can be measured experimentally. This study reports on the variability of the Total Electron Content (TEC) during the December 26, 2004 earthquake in North Sumatra (epicentre: 3.295°N, 95.982°E) which measured 9.3 on the Richter scale. Approach: The ionospheric TEC near North Sumatra between December 19 to 31 was calculated between 22:00 and 24:00 and between 02:00 and 06:00 local time (LT) using a dual frequency Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. It was recorded for a period of 13 days, which is seven days before and five days after the earthquake. The GPS data was taken from the Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia in the north of Malaysia (4.1°N, 99.8°E), which is near North Sumatra. Four sets of data were selected from different GPS satellites that passed near the epicentre. Results: Results show good agreement with the existence of earthquake precursors. TEC variability was detected at night and in the early morning of 21 December 2004 (five days before the earthquake) and 25 December 2004 (a day before). Findings show an increase in the electron concentration level at the station closest to the epicentre and the TEC varies from 2-10 TEC unit. Conclusion/Recommendations: The findings correspond with previous research and literature in this field. Further studies on the parameters that cause the change in the ionospheric TEC due to earthquakes are needed if this is to be used as part of an earthquake early warning prediction system.

Global ionospheric TEC response to a strong magnetic storm

The global characteristics of the ionospheric storm and irregularities as well as propagation of TEC (total electron content) disturbances during the strong magnetic storm occurring in November 2004 were investigated by using the data of the IGS network. For the response of the global ionospheric TEC to this strong magnetic storm, the following features are noticeable: 1) the maximum of the ionospheric storm phase occurred around the main phase maximum of the magnetic storm; 2) the TEC response in equatorial and low latitudes was more remarkable than that in mid-high latitudes; 3) as a whole, the storm phase in the northern hemisphere was mainly positive, and it was negative in the southern hemisphere; 4) during the whole magnetic storm from November 7 to 11, the locations where the maxima of the positive and negative ionospheric storm phases occurred were nearly invariant to the Sun at low and equatorial latitudes, i.e. the 24-h recurrence. Analyzing results of TEC rate and its standard deviation showed that the ionospheric irregularities and disturbances in the global mainly occurred around the main phase maximum of the storm, and they distributed in a large longitudinal region for both day and night in mid-high latitudes and they generated and developed only after the sunset, and lasted out to the midnight in equatorial and low latitudes. The disturbance propagation parameters were also estimated by using the wavelet reconstruction and cross-correlation technologies for a set of spaced stations in the Northern America.

Study of the ionospheric total electron content response to the great flare on 15 April 2001 using the International GPS Service network for the whole sunlit hemisphere

The characteristics of the ionospheric response to the solar flare on Apr. 15, 2001 were studied using the total electron content (TEC) obtained at GPS observational stations in the whole sunlit hemisphere under International GPS Service for Geodynamics. It was found that the largest enhancement of the sudden increase of total electron content during this flare is ∼2.6 TECU (1 TECU = 1016 m−2). The effects of solar flare radiation on the ionosphere can be recognized even in the region at 0600 or 1800 LT. Owing to ionospheric scintillation, the TEC enhancement could not be derived from temporal TEC variation curves in high latitudes. On the other hand, the synoptic picture of the sunlit ionospheric response to the flare was obtained, and the results showed the relationship of TEC enhancements with solar zenith angles. The larger the solar zenith angle, the smaller the TEC enhancement. Even minor fast changes in TEC during this flare are revealed in the changing rate of temporal TEC variations in midlatitudes and low latitudes. These small globally synchronous disturbances of TEC were compared with the solar X‐ray fluxes of this flare observed by satellites, and a close correlation between those small ionospheric disturbances and the hard X‐ray flux fluctuations was found.

GPS‐derived ionospheric total electron content response to a solar flare that occurred on 14 July 2000

This paper studies the ionospheric response to an X5.7/3B solar flare that occurred at 10:03 UT on 14 July 2000. With Global Positioning System (GPS) observations, temporal evolution of the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) values was obtained within the latitude range of 30°N ∼ 45°N and the longitude range of 15°E ∼ 45°E. It was found that dayside TEC values were enhanced during the flare event, which could be as large as 5 TECU (1 TECU = 1016/m2) in regions with small solar zenith angles. The enhancement tended to depend on latitude, longitude and the solar zenith angle of the subionospheric point. However, the TEC enhancement derived from the latitude belt between 30°N and 45°N was not symmetrical about either the longitude or the local hour; it was smaller in the local morning than in the afternoon. The TEC enhancement in the Southern Hemisphere seems to be larger than that in the Northern Hemisphere for the same solar zenith angle. This implies that the background levels of the ionosphere and thermosphere had some influence on the TEC enhancement. The temporal variation of TEC shows minor correlative disturbances from 10:15 UT to 10:27 UT when the solar flare was in the maximum phase. It is likely that the minor disturbances resulted from the evolution of flare emission in the EUV domain.

Correction to “Ionospheric total electron content response to solar eclipses” by H. F. Tsai and J. Y. Liu

Correction to “Ionospheric total electron content response to solar eclipses” by H. F. Tsai and J. Y. Liu

Ionospheric total electron content response to solar eclipses

On October 24, 1995, and March 9, 1997, two solar eclipse events occur. It is therefore of interest to investigate how the ionosphere responded to the eclipses. Five global positioning system (GPS) ground‐based receivers are specifically designed to observe large‐scale ionospheric variations over the geomagnetic equatorial, equatorial anomaly crest, and midlatitude regions. Two‐dimensional images of ionospheric total electron content (TEC) during the two eclipse periods are constructed. The deviations in the TEC images on eclipse days from those on reference days show that during the eclipse days the ionosphere experienced some large‐scale changes. Four features of the TEC deviations, pre‐ascension (PA), major depression (MD), sunset ascension (SA), and secondary depression (SD) have been observed. A detailed study shows that in geomagnetic low latitudes, PAs are possibly related to the locations of the equatorial anomaly crest. The latitudinal location, amplitude, and occurrence time of MDs suggest that the fountain effect is essential. SAs and SDs occurring in geomagnetic equatorial and low latitudes and appearing respectively before/around and after local sunset indicate that the prereversal enhancement plays an important role.