Investment Model Variables Research Articles

Relationship dissolution following marital infidelity: comparing European Americans and Asian Americans

The present study examined how attitudes toward divorce as well as the Investment Model relate to the decision to divorce following a spouse's infidelity among European Americans and Asian/Asian Americans. Participants were 325 participants (155 male, 170 female) who completed a survey. Structural Equation Modeling was employed to test the hypotheses. Overall, the model showed that gender, personal income, infidelity type, quality of alternative, commitment, and divorce attitudes are associated with the stay/leave decision. Ethnicity moderated these relationships as the investment model variables are associated with European American participants' decision-making whereas for Asian Americans, only attitude toward divorce was a strong predictor. These findings suggest European Americans and Asian Americans weigh different factors when making the decision to divorce or remain together. Understanding the variables associated with stay/leave decisions, particularly with a cross-cultural lens, provides insight into why some individuals remain together following an infidelity.

What Do I Call Us? The Investment Model of Commitment Processes and Changes in Relationship Categorization

The investment model of commitment has been used to understand relationship maintenance and dissolution across a variety of populations and relationship types. The current study used data from the Project on Partner Dynamics (POPD), a cohort study of young adults involved in nonmarital sexual relationships in the Los Angeles area, to test whether and how the investment model of commitment processes predicts individuals' self-reported categorizations of their relationships over time. We examined (1) how relationship categorizations are associated with variables outlined by the investment model and (2) whether model variables predict changes in relationship categorization over time. We found that changes in relationship self-categorization were associated with simultaneous changes in investment model variables, and that the model largely predicts the likelihood of future changes in relational self-categorization. These results are the first to examine how the investment model prospectively predicts the progression or regression of relationships beyond relationship dissolution.

Investment model predictions of workplace ostracism on K–12 teachers’ commitment to their schools and the profession of teaching

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to determine how the ostracism of K-12 teachers influences their commitment to their schools and commitment to the teaching profession. The investment model was used to situate ostracism as a predictor of teacher commitment. Participants were 200 full-time K-12 teachers who completed a survey assessing their experiences with ostracism at work and investment model variables (i.e., investments, quality of alternatives, satisfaction, and commitment). Results confirmed investment model predictions with teachers’ investments, quality of alternatives, and satisfaction predicting their commitment to their schools and profession. Results of mediation models also demonstrated that controlling for teachers’ investments and quality of alternatives, ostracism predicted commitment indirectly through its effect on satisfaction. This study revealed that teacher commitment is explained by investment model predictions, but after controlling for those predictions, is further explained by ostracism from teacher colleagues.

Romantic Partner Monitoring After Breakups: Attachment, Dependence, Distress, and Post-Dissolution Online Surveillance via Social Networking Sites

Romantic relationship dissolution can be stressful, and social networking sites make it difficult to separate from a romantic partner online as well as offline. An online survey (N = 431) tested a model synthesizing attachment, investment model variables, and post-dissolution emotional distress as predictors of interpersonal surveillance (i.e., "Facebook stalking") of one's ex-partner on Facebook after a breakup. Results indicated that anxious attachment predicted relational investment but also seeking relationship alternatives; avoidant attachment was negatively related to investment but positively related to seeking alternatives. Investment predicted commitment, whereas seeking alternatives was negatively related to commitment. Commitment predicted emotional distress after the breakup. Distress predicted partner monitoring immediately following the breakup, particularly for those who did not initiate the breakup, as well as current partner monitoring. Given their affordances, social media are discussed as potentially unhealthy enablers for online surveillance after relationship termination.

Broadening the investment model

The investment model is one of the most influential theoretical frameworks for understanding commitment in close relationships. Nonetheless, few studies have examined commitment dynamics using within-persons designs. In addition, there have been few attempts to examine potential antecedents of investment dynamics. The current research attempts to integrate the investment model with contemporary perspectives on attachment and perceived partner responsiveness by examining relationship dynamics within and between persons in a yearlong, intensive longitudinal design. We found that across levels of analysis, perceived partner responsiveness shaped investment model variables which, in turn, shaped commitment. We also found that individual differences in attachment moderated some of these dynamics, such that people who were insecurely attached were less likely than others to perceive their partner as responsive. We suggest taking a more integrationist approach to close relationship research and explore romantic relationship dynamics on the within-person level.

The Association of Investment Model Variables and Dyadic Patterns of Physical Partner Violence: A Study of College Women.

Previous research has examined the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization experiences and investment model variables, particularly with relation to leaving intentions. However, research only has begun to explore the impact that various dyadic patterns of IPV (i.e., unidirectional victimization, unidirectional perpetration, bidirectional violence, and non-violence) have on investment model variables. Grounded in behavioral principles, the current study used a sample of college women to assess the impact that perpetration and victimization have on investment model variables. Results indicated that 69.2% of the sample was in a relationship with no IPV. Among those who reported IPV in their relationships, 11.9% reported unidirectional perpetration, 10.6% bidirectional violence, and 7.4% unidirectional victimization. Overall, the findings suggest that women's victimization (i.e., victim only and bidirectional IPV) is associated with lower levels of satisfaction and commitment, and that women's perpetration (i.e., perpetration only and bidirectional IPV) is associated with higher levels of investment. Women in bidirectionally violent relationships reported higher quality alternatives than women in non-violent relationships. The current study emphasizes the importance of considering both IPV perpetration and IPV victimization experiences when exploring women's decisions to remain in relationships.

Using modern technology to keep in touch with back burners: An investment model analysis

Relationship research and theory recognizes that individuals continue to monitor the availability of their romantic/sexual prospects whether or not they are already in a committed relationship. We use the term back burner to describe a desired potential or continuing romantic/sexual partner with whom one communicates, but to whom one is not exclusively committed. Although communication with back burners is not new, modern technology affords novel channels (e.g., social networking applications and text messaging) that individuals are using to connect with back burners. A survey study (N=374) explored whether people used technology to communicate with back burners, as well as relationships between back burner contacts and investment model variables (Rusbult, 1980). Results indicated that back burner activity through electronic channels was common, men reported more back burners than women, and that number of back burners associated positively with quality of alternatives. For those in committed relationships, no relationships were observed between back burner activity and commitment to or investment in the relationship. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Examining commitment and relational maintenance in formal youth mentoring relationships

This study utilizes a social exchange perspective to examine mentors’ reported commitment and relational maintenance in formal youth mentoring relationships. One hundred and forty-five adult mentors from four mentoring programs completed surveys about aspects of their current youth mentoring relationship. Study measures assessed Investment Model variables (satisfaction, alternatives, investments, and commitment), stay/leave behavior, and reported use of relational maintenance strategies. Analyses supported hypotheses derived from the Investment Model, and commitment, in turn, predicted stay/leave behavior for mentors. In addition, a mediation model demonstrated that commitment mediates the relationships between some Investment Model variables and three of five relational maintenance strategies. The unique nature of formal youth mentoring relationships as prescribed is discussed, as are practical applications for mentoring programs.

The Relation Between Dating Violence Victimization and Commitment Among Turkish College Women: Does the Investment Model Matter?

The present study explored the sexual, physical, psychological, and overall dating violence experiences, and related these experiences to Investment Model variables among Turkish college women. Three hundred and ninety dating women from four universities in Ankara, Turkey completed the Satisfaction, Investment, Alternatives, and Commitment subscales from the Investment Model Scale and the Sexual Coercion, Physical Assault, and Psychological Aggression subscales from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale. 79.5 percent reported at least one incident of violence in a dating relationship within the previous year. Regression analyses indicated that satisfaction fully mediated the relations between physical, psychological, and overall dating violence victimization and commitment, but not for sexual victimization. The results suggest that future research should explore the possibility that the dissatisfaction women experience may be related to an increased likelihood of relation termination.

Predicting Commitment in Young Adults’ Physically Aggressive and Sexually Coercive Dating Relationships

Intimate partner violence often begins during the courtship stage of romantic relationships. Although some relationships dissolve as a result of aggression, other relationships remain intact, increasing the risk for escalated violence. The present study identified factors predictive of individual differences in emerging adults' commitment to physically aggressive or sexually coercive dating relationships. Specifically, Rusbult's Investment Model of romantic relationships (e.g., investment, satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and commitment) was applied to a longitudinal sample of 148 young adult women who reported experiencing aggression or coercion from their current partners. To further explain commitment within aggressive or coercive dating relationships, rejection sensitivity and anxious and avoidant romantic relational styles were included as predictors of the Investment Model variables. A more avoidant romantic style indirectly predicted commitment through relationship satisfaction and investment. Both commitment and rejection sensitivity significantly predicted continuing an aggressive or coercive relationship 6 months later. The present study improves our understanding of the processes involved in relationship commitment. Continuing to understand these processes will inform interventions that seek to help women who have decided to end aggressive or coercive dating relationships.

A Mixed-Methodological Examination of Investment Model Variables Among Abused and Nonabused College Women

Objective: This study assessed abused and nonabused women's perceptions of Investment Model (IM) variables (ie, relationship investment, satisfaction, commitment, quality of alternatives) utilizing a mixed-methods design. Participants: Participants included 102 college women, approximately half of whom were in abusive dating relationships. Methods: Qualitative content analyses were used to analyze transcribed responses to open-ended questions about abused and nonabused women's perceptions of IM variables. These coding categories were compared with a quantitative measure of IM variables. Results: Overall, abused and nonabused women were not found to differ on qualitative or quantitative measures with regard to overall level of commitment, investment, or perceived alternatives to their relationships. However, abused women reported lower levels of satisfaction, and listed more negative aspects of their relationships than nonabused women. Additionally, a number of factors were identified by women to affect their perceptions of these IM variables. Conclusions: Victims of dating violence may minimize the abuse sustained in efforts to maintain their relationships. Alternatively, dissonance between the positive and negative aspects of the relationships may drive ambivalence about leaving relationships, all of which could be addressed in dating violence prevention and intervention programming on campuses.

Attachment and the investment model: Predictors of relationship commitment, maintenance, and persistence

AbstractThis research examines adult attachment and the investment model. Study 1 tests anxiety and avoidance predicting romantic relationship commitment, mediated by satisfaction, alternatives, and investments. Additional studies added outcomes of relationship maintenance (Study 2) and persistence (Study 3). In all 3 studies, satisfaction, alternatives, and investments mediated the associations between anxiety and avoidance and relationship commitment. A direct effect of avoidance on commitment remained. The investment model variables mediated the effect of anxiety and avoidance on accommodation and willingness to sacrifice (Study 2) and relationship persistence (Study 3). Direct effects remained for avoidance on accommodation and anxiety on persistence. The mediated model was supported for men and women, proximal and long‐distance relationships, and college student and community samples.

Unwanted Pursuit in Same-Sex Relationships: Effects of Attachment Styles, Investment Model Variables, and Sexual Minority Stressors

This study examined the frequency and antecedents of unwanted pursuit in the intimate relationships of lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered (LGBT) individuals. Analyses were conducted separately for disengagers (individuals who wanted to end a relationship when the other partner did not want to let go) and rejected partners (individuals who wanted to hold on to a relationship that the other person was trying to end). One hundred percent of disengagers reported having experienced at least one unwanted pursuit behavior, and 87.7% of rejected partners reported engaging in at least one unwanted pursuit behavior. Among rejected partners, anxious attachment positively predicted pursuit behaviors; and, among disengagers, avoidant attachment negatively predicted being the target of aggressive behaviors. Investment in the relationship predicted pursuit as reported by disengagers and rejected partners. In addition, lifetime experiences with minority stressors predicted being the target of pursuit among disengagers. The findings expand on earlier research about how personality variables and relationship beliefs affect unwanted pursuit. It also demonstrates how sexual minorities face extra challenges when one partner wants to break up and the other partner does not want the relationship to end.

College Women’s Stay/Leave Decisions in Abusive Dating Relationships: A Prospective Analysis of an Expanded Investment Model

The purpose of the current study was to explore college women's stay/ leave decisions in abusive relationships using a prospective methodology. Participants (N = 323) completed surveys at the beginning and end of a 10-week academic quarter for course credit. A path analysis suggested that the model-which included investment model variables (i.e., relationship commitment, investment, satisfaction, and quality of alternatives), childhood abuse, psychological distress, avoidance coping, and self-esteem-was a good fit to the data and predicted abused women's leaving behaviors over the interim. The implications of these findings for future research, theory, and clinical work are discussed.

Differences in relationship investments between gay and heterosexual men

Previous Investment Model research found that investments are a weaker predictor of relationship commitment for gay men compared with heterosexual men. The present study examined whether this effect is characteristic of investments in general or whether it is specific to certain types of investments. Results indicated that tangible investments significantly predicted commitment among heterosexual men, but not among gay men. In contrast, intangible investments predicted commitment regardless of sexual orientation. Furthermore, adding measures of tangible and intangible investments to the traditional Investment Model variables significantly increased explained variance in commitment for both gay and heterosexual men. These findings highlight the importance of reevaluating how relationship investments are conceptualized and suggests that not all investments are equally consequential across different romantic involvements.

Experiencing and Communicating Romantic Jealousy: Questioning the Investment Model

Though researchers have investigated individual aspects of Rusbult's (1980) Investment Model of relational commitment in association with romantic jealousy, previous research had not employed the model as a theoretical framework for understanding variations in jealousy experience and expression within dating partnerships. Thus, the current research examined commitment, satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment in association with cognitive and emotional jealousy experience, and forms of jealousy expression. Mixed findings were observed for the bivariate associations between the investment model and jealousy variables. Further, the mediational role of commitment as specified by the investment model was not helpful in understanding jealousy experience and jealousy expression processes, with the sole exception of integrative communication. Implications for the study of romantic jealousy and the investment model are discussed in light of these findings.

You are my best friend: Commitment and stability in adolescents’ same‐sex friendships

AbstractA 2‐wave longitudinal study among 678 early and 317 middle adolescents investigated the applicability of Rusbult’s investment model to adolescent best friendships and tested its usefulness in predicting friendship stability. Results showed that satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investments predict commitment in friendships, both concurrently and over time. Furthermore, investment model variables predicted friendship stability and, among stable friendships, predicted the tendency to switch best friends. Commitment mediated the effects of satisfaction, investment, and alternatives on tendency to switch. As expected, gender and age differences were found in that alternatives were more important for older adolescents and associations among model variables were stronger for girls. Overall, the investment model proved useful in predicting commitment and stability in adolescents’ best friendships.

The moderating effects of rituals on commitment in premarital involvements

Rituals promote commitment in marital and family relationships. However, the salience of rituals to commitment in premarital involvements has not been investigated. This study examined if rituals were related to commitment, and to what extent rituals moderated the association between investment model variables (i.e., satisfaction level, investment size, and alternatives) and commitment. University students (N = 100) who were in a couple relationship volunteered to participate. Findings indicated that rituals were significant predictors of commitment; however, no unique variance was accounted for once investment model variables were taken into consideration. Rituals significantly moderated the relationship between alternatives and investments, and commitment. Implications for future research are discussed.

Leaving a Sexually Coercive Dating Partner: A Prospective Application of the Investment Model

In the present study, an investment model framework was applied to identify associations between partner verbal sexual coercion and dating relationship outcomes, including relationship commitment and maintenance. Undergraduate women ( N = 180) provided self-report data on investment model variables and verbal sexual coercion within their current relationships and returned 6 to 8 weeks later to report on their relationship status. About 28% of the participants endorsed partner verbal sexual coercion. Women in sexually coercive relationships reported greater investment but did not differ from other women in satisfaction, commitment, or later relationship maintenance. Results revealed indirect effects of partner sexual coercion on relationship commitment through greater perceived investment. Sustaining verbal sexual coercion in ongoing dating relationships may represent a type of relationship investment that indirectly promotes subjective commitment. Additional studies of verbal sexual coercion in committed romantic relationships are needed.

Using the Investment Model to Understand Battered Women's Commitment to Abusive Relationships

We replicate and extend research using the Investment Model (Rusbult, 1980, J. Exp. Social Psychol., 45, 101–117) to understand battered women's commitment to abusive relationships. The Investment Model is a nonpathologizing theory that views commitment as a function of one's satisfaction with, alternatives to, and investments in the relationship. These factors were examined in a shelter-based sample of battered women. Investment model variables, particularly satisfaction, were also examined as mediators of the relationship between abuse exposure and commitment. Both Investment Model and abuse exposure constructs were assessed using instruments more fully developed than in previous research. Results indicated that each of the Investment Model factors contributed uniquely to women's commitment, and that relationship satisfaction mediated the relationship between psychological (but not physical) abuse and commitment. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.