Investigative Journalism Research Articles

Generative AI and Investigative Journalism—An Application of Baumol's Cost Disease Across Mass Communication Sectors

Generative artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed various industries, automating tasks and enhancing productivity. Yet, its impact varies across sectors. In mass communication, AI has notably benefited entertainment, public relations, and advertising. However, it poses a lesser advantage for investigative journalism, where labor-intensive research and other highly specialized activities depend on highly educated journalists. This situation parallels Baumol's concept of a cost disease, which applies to labor-intensive “stagnant” service sectors such as healthcare, education, and the performing arts. These sectors rely heavily on human labor and struggle to achieve significant productivity gains from technological advances. This means they may require decreasing wages or increasing subsidies to compete with more productive industries. In mass communication, this phenomenon could be especially pertinent to (investigative) journalism, which directly competes for attention with other communication forms. This could exacerbate pressures on wages and working conditions, hindering the attraction of talent to the field and necessitating higher public spending on this vital journalism form. This commentary presents a cross-industry analysis of the impact of generative AI on communication sectors and derives directions for further research that would enhance our understanding of journalism's economic viability in a digital communication landscape and inform policy makers to address the affiliated societal challenges. It closes with a discussion of Guzman and Lewis’s call for more cross-industry research on AI in communication industries.

Investigative Reporting Trends in Bangladesh: A Content Analysis of Selected Newspaper

The purpose of this research was to examine the actual state of investigative journalism in Bangladeshi print media. The content analysis method was used to scrutinize the investigative reports, employing both quantitative and thematic approaches. Four daily newspapers - The Daily Star, Prothom Alo, Bangladesh Protidin, and Juger Alo - were selected for analysis, with 61 copies from each, totaling 244 newspaper copies. The three national dailies were selected as the most circulated Bangla and English newspapers of Bangladesh according to the department of film and publications (DFP) and the local daily was chosen as per researcher convenience. The theoretical framework for this study utilized the social responsibility theories of the press and agenda-setting theory. The results indicated that a limited number of investigative reports were published in Bangladeshi daily newspapers, with the theme of economy-related issues receiving the most attention in investigative reporting. Concerns were raised regarding the high percentage of anonymous sources (41%) and second-hand investigation (69%), casting doubt on the quality of investigative reporting. Future research could explore a broader perspective of investigative reports through textual analysis conducted over an extended period.

Interlopers by choice, or interlopers by circumstance? Alexey Navalny and alternative journalistic projects in contemporary autocratic Russia

In February 2024, Russian opposition activist Alexey Navalny died in a Western Siberian prison aged just 47. Known as a vocal opposition leader in Russia in the 2010s, he was regularly trying to be elected but also organised the largest mass anti-establishment and anti-corruption protests in Russia before his untimely death. Deprived of access and coverage in the Russian mainstream media, Navalny and his associates established their own media channels, including personal YouTube channels and online media outlets such as Navalny LIVE to avoid censorship and expose the corruption and abuses of power of high-ranking officials in Russia. However, at the same time, Navalny and his colleagues cannot be labelled as ‘journalists’ in a normative sense. They were not professional journalists and had not gone through the processes of journalistic socialisation, but rather ‘tried on’ journalistic roles and investigative journalism practices to expose corrupt elites. In this sense, Navalny and his team can be called (explicit) interlopers who adopt journalistic identities and force a reconsideration of what journalists are and journalism is. In this study, we look at the case of Navalny and his team and their investigative documentaries on YouTube. We relate his practice to the journalistic concept of (explicit) interlopers, analyse how their unique and alternative journalistic project has diversified a largely monopolised and authoritarian Russian public sphere, and propose extending the notion of interlopers by differentiating between interlopers by choice, and interlopers by circumstance.

Down the banking hole: Investigating the case of Slovenian banks

The aim of this paper is to analyse who was responsible for the deterioration of the Slovenian banking sector to such an extent that it was almost destroyed by the 2008 financial crisis, necessitating the consideration of an international bailout. A literature review focused specifically on reports from law enforcement agencies and commissions that investigated banking practices, complemented by a qualitative empirical study. In order to gain insight into the reasons why this situation unfolded, ten structured interviews were conducted. The interviewees included experts with experience in the fields of prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of economic crime, bad credit management, central banking, parliamentary committee management, forensic investigations, investigative journalism, and experts with academic knowledge in law and economics. Five different investigations explored the behaviour of banking sector actors before, during, and after the 2008 financial crisis. These investigations revealed behaviours ranging from negligence to criminal acts. The interviews indicated that the perpetrators were individuals of high social status with significant influence, explaining why people are often not willing to testify against them. On the detection and prosecution front, the main challenges were fears among criminal investigators, prosecutors, judges, and others of retaliation from superiors, job loss, and being publicly lambasted in the media.

Are journalists truly safe? Communicating the Risks Faced by Investigative Journalists in Nigeria

This study examined the risks faced by investigative journalists in Nigeria. The Hazard Barrier Target Model was used as the theoretical foundation for this investigation. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design, in which 353 journalists in Nigeria were surveyed through a Google questionnaire. Results showed that some of the risks journalists face are physical threats and violence, loss of job and other traumatic situations, risk of legal battles, intimidation, and harassment, among others. Results also showed that some of the impacts of the risks faced by investigative journalists in Nigeria include self-censorship, low engagement in the act of investigative journalism, poor quality of reports on issues worthy of in-depth investigation, and social and professional isolation. It was concluded that journalists agreed that the identified risks in the study are some of the risks investigative journalists in Nigeria face in the course of their job and that these risks they encounter to a large extent on a frequent basis, as such it has led to negative impacts on investigative journalism practice in Nigeria. The practical, policy, and scholarly implications of the study were highlighted.

Frontline Worker Discretion in the For‐Profit Banking Industry: Lessons From Early Pandemic Relief Programming

ABSTRACTIn April and May 2020, the United States banking industry approved over $650 billion in federal relief funds as part of the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP). Since then, extensive evidence of discriminatory lending has been revealed by investigative journalism and academic studies. Our study is based on 41 interviews with frontline banking professionals conducted during the days and weeks of the PPP rollout. We find that under the crisis conditions of the pandemic, capped funds in the PPP and built‐in incentives that encouraged certain types of loans, banking employees relied upon the professional norms and logic of the for‐profit sector. We argue that these norms and logics threatened the integrity of the PPP as a public relief programme by applying profit‐oriented priorities to resources marked for universal and fair distribution. Our findings offer new directions for theorising sector‐level differences in street‐level bureaucratic discretion in the context of mixed‐sector collaboration on public service delivery, particularly under conditions of crisis and urgency.

War mediated by satellites. US drone warfare and its socio-political consequences

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: Analysis of the mediation phenomenon in US drone warfare and its consequences for drone operators and for global politics. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The primary issue is how the physical separation from the battlefield affects soldiers controlling unmanned vehicles and how technological dominance associated with drones impacts international law and perception of the enemy. The paper analyzes a broad range of sources, including academic literature, NGO reports, journalistic investigations, military textbooks, and personal accounts from drone operators. The theoretical framework draws from Carl Schmitt’s books, “Nomos of the Earth” and “Theory of the Partisan”. THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: In the first part, the study examines the mechanics of drone warfare and analyzes the personal experiences of drone operators. In the second part, the focus shifts to the realm of geopolitics, exploring the transformations it undergoes due to the impact of remote warfare. RESEARCH RESULTS: Workers in the unmanned warfare program exhibit symptoms similar to those experienced by soldiers on the battlefield. The precise and “humanitarian” elimination of enemies can be counterproductive, potentially leading to the dehumanization of the enemy and radicalization on both sides of the conflict. CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The fact of separation from the battlefield does not necessarily guarantee safety, precision, or humanitarian outcomes. On the contrary, in some instances, it can lead to soldiers’ suffering, civilian casualties, and escalation of conflict intensity.

Role of Newspapers and Magazines in New India

Newspapers and magazines have played a transformative role in addressing India’s social issues, fostering awareness, and promoting accountability. As conduits of information between the government and the public, they have been instrumental in spotlighting critical areas such as poverty, education, health, and corruption. Historically, the Indian press was marked by an unwavering commitment to truth and justice, contributing significantly to societal progress. Despite the challenges of censorship, misinformation, and threats to journalists, the media has adapted to the digital age, leveraging technology for timely and accurate reporting. Prominent publications like The Hindu and The Indian Express, along with major news agencies such as PTI and ANI, have maintained high editorial standards, ensuring credible dissemination of information. However, the modern media landscape faces challenges such as the influence of advertising revenue, the digital divide, and the safety of journalists. Addressing these issues requires a multipronged approach, including public education on media literacy, support for investigative journalism, and technological tools to combat misinformation. Media also acts as a catalyst for social change by amplifying the voices of marginalized communities, advocating for policy reforms, and inspiring collective action. Innovative strategies like engaging infographics, podcasts, and safe platforms for whistleblowers enhance the media’s impact. Despite obstacles, newspapers and magazines remain vital in shaping public opinion, influencing policies, and fostering a more equitable society. This study underscores the persistent importance of print and digital media in the journey toward a "New India."

Psychological capital and safety in Global North-South cooperation: A field analysis of collaborative investigative journalism across the U.S.-Mexico border

This article builds on a field theoretical analysis of collaborative investigative journalism across the U.S-Mexico (Global North-South) border. The article examines contents produced in investigative collaboration between Salvadoran, Guatemalan, Mexican, and U.S. journalists, exposing human rights violations, crime, and corruption. The article elaborates on the concept of psychological capital and argues for its relevance in the study of cross-border collaborative investigative journalism. A key finding resulting from this research is that in most collaborative projects, psychological and other capital of the Central American and Mexican journalists was outweighed by the capital of the U.S. journalists. The psychological, social, and cultural capital of the Southern journalistic fields were highly relevant for the successful implementation of the examined projects, but not explicitly recognized in most reporting. The article also suggests the Southern journalists did not feel safe enough to suggest critical perspectives challenging the position of their Northern partners, who funded and supervised the collaborations. However, three projects, in which Northern and Southern journalists worked in Central America and Mexico side by side, manifested exemplary solidarity and recognition of the psychological and other capital of the Southern fields. Hence, it seems that witnessing the dangers affecting the region’s journalists firsthand can enable Northern journalists to better understand and appreciate the circumstances in which their Southern partners are living and working, reflected in more genuine appreciation of their psychological, cultural, and social capital.

Social Issues in Iraqi Newspapers Al-Sabah Newspaper as a Model: An Analytical Social Study

It is no longer hidden that the press plays a prominent role in political, economic, and sports fields, while it has taken a limited role in social aspects in some weekly and monthly magazines. Social journalism does not occupy enough space in our Iraqi society. However, it is considered one of the most major areas that should receive sufficient attention considering the developments and changes that Iraqi society is experiencing. Since social journalism concerns the community in general, both young and old, it is necessary to maintain this type of journalism as it is an important means of intellectual nourishment for human minds. It informs them about the most important daily issues in their lives and the social problems that members of the community face, aiming to find the best ways to address and resolve them. This research sought to identify the journalistic arts that Iraqi newspapers focused on in their treatment of social issues. This study is considered one of the descriptive-analytical social studies, starting with the content analysis methodology as the basis for the research, and the quantitative method as an auxiliary tool to count the frequencies and indications of the research data through content analysis, which focuses on the apparent and quantitative description of the content of social issues. In line with what has been mentioned, the research was divided into three sections: the first section (the methodological framework of the research), the second section (the theoretical framework of the research), and the third section (the practical framework of the research). The main findings of the research were: the category "Increase in cases of domestic violence, especially against women and children" had a percentage of 39%, the category "Increase in the number of drug users" had a percentage of 26%, the category "Spread of some unacceptable behaviors that conflict with societal values" had a percentage of 17%, and the category "Deterioration of the reality of many families due to lack of adequate healthcare" had a percentage of 14%. The research concluded with a set of results, the most important of which are: it was found that there are ten main categories of social issues, ranging from cases of domestic violence against women and children to the increase in the number of drug users, etc. As for the recommendations, the most important one is to pay attention to investigative journalism for its role in monitoring and analyzing various journalistic topics.

Social Issues in Iraqi Newspapers Al-Sabah Newspaper as a Model: An Analytical Social Study

It is no longer hidden that the press plays a prominent role in political, economic, and sports fields, while it has taken a limited role in social aspects in some weekly and monthly magazines. Social journalism does not occupy enough space in our Iraqi society. However, it is considered one of the most major areas that should receive sufficient attention considering the developments and changes that Iraqi society is experiencing. Since social journalism concerns the community in general, both young and old, it is necessary to maintain this type of journalism as it is an important means of intellectual nourishment for human minds. It informs them about the most important daily issues in their lives and the social problems that members of the community face, aiming to find the best ways to address and resolve them. This research sought to identify the journalistic arts that Iraqi newspapers focused on in their treatment of social issues. This study is considered one of the descriptive-analytical social studies, starting with the content analysis methodology as the basis for the research, and the quantitative method as an auxiliary tool to count the frequencies and indications of the research data through content analysis, which focuses on the apparent and quantitative description of the content of social issues. In line with what has been mentioned, the research was divided into three sections: the first section (the methodological framework of the research), the second section (the theoretical framework of the research), and the third section (the practical framework of the research). The main findings of the research were: the category "Increase in cases of domestic violence, especially against women and children" had a percentage of 39%, the category "Increase in the number of drug users" had a percentage of 26%, the category "Spread of some unacceptable behaviors that conflict with societal values" had a percentage of 17%, and the category "Deterioration of the reality of many families due to lack of adequate healthcare" had a percentage of 14%. The research concluded with a set of results, the most important of which are: it was found that there are ten main categories of social issues, ranging from cases of domestic violence against women and children to the increase in the number of drug users, etc. As for the recommendations, the most important one is to pay attention to investigative journalism for its role in monitoring and analyzing various journalistic topics.

Theranos: the Ethics of Innovation and Deception in Healthcare Technology

The case of Theranos, a health technology company founded by Elizabeth Holmes, presents a profound ethical dilemma that exemplifies the consequences of misrepresentation in healthcare innovation. This analysis examines the company's fraudulent claims regarding its blood-testing technology, which promised groundbreaking results using minimal blood samples. Initially lauded for its potential, Theranos attracted significant investment and partnerships before facing growing scrutiny due to internal whistleblower accounts and investigative journalism. The ethical issues at the core of this case involve the deliberate falsification of leadership's technological capabilities, which leads to harm to patients and significant financial losses for investors. The methodology of this study involved a comprehensive review of academic literature identified through Google Scholar, applying inclusion criteria that focused on ethical analysis, corporate leadership, and regulatory oversight. The selected documents were analyzed using Atlas.ti to code critical themes such as corporate misrepresentation, stakeholder rights, and regulatory failures. Utilizing a multi-faceted ethical analysis—incorporating utilitarian, deontological, virtue ethics, and rights-based perspectives—this study explores the failures of corporate leadership in adhering to professional and ethical obligations. It critically evaluates the responses by stakeholders, including actions taken by regulatory bodies and law enforcement, and discusses the lessons learned for the broader health technology sector. The study concludes by recommending more robust internal governance, transparent leadership, and proactive regulatory oversight as essential measures to prevent future ethical lapses in the industry. The analysis contributes to understanding ethics' critical role in maintaining trust and accountability within healthcare innovation.The case of Theranos, a health technology company founded by Elizabeth Holmes, presents a profound ethical dilemma that exemplifies the consequences of misrepresentation in healthcare innovation. This analysis examines the company's fraudulent claims regarding its blood-testing technology, which promised groundbreaking results using minimal blood samples. Initially lauded for its potential, Theranos attracted significant investment and partnerships before facing growing scrutiny due to internal whistleblower accounts and investigative journalism. The ethical issues at the core of this case involve the deliberate falsification of leadership's technological capabilities, which leads to harm to patients and significant financial losses for investors. The methodology of this study involved a comprehensive review of academic literature identified through Google Scholar, applying inclusion criteria that focused on ethical analysis, corporate leadership, and regulatory oversight. The selected documents were analyzed using Atlas.ti to code critical themes such as corporate misrepresentation, stakeholder rights, and regulatory failures. Utilizing a multi-faceted ethical analysis—incorporating utilitarian, deontological, virtue ethics, and rights-based perspectives—this study explores the failures of corporate leadership in adhering to professional and ethical obligations. It critically evaluates the responses by stakeholders, including actions taken by regulatory bodies and law enforcement, and discusses the lessons learned for the broader health technology sector. The study concludes by recommending more robust internal governance, transparent leadership, and proactive regulatory oversight as essential measures to prevent future ethical lapses in the industry. The analysis contributes to understanding ethics' critical role in maintaining trust and accountability within healthcare innovation.

The Varieties of Money Laundering and the Determinants of Offender Choices

Two images dominate discussion of money laundering. Investigative journalists and politicians stress the variety and sophistication of methods that have been used to launder money of corrupt officials and white collar offenders. The research literature, largely dependent on criminal cases, emphasizes how unsophisticated and routine are the laundering methods used by drug dealers and other illegal market participants. The discrepancy may reflect the incapacity of police to detect sophisticated money laundering but it may also represent the reality; different groups of offenders choose different methods. This paper presents a theoretical framework to explain how offenders choose to launder their criminal earnings. Specifically it asks: what determines the sophistication of the method chosen? Among the variables that we suggest influence the choice are: (a) the type of predicate crime and of crime proceeds, (b) the type of offender (age, education, social status), (c) his/her motivations, (d) the AML environment and the level of AML controls. The paper provides arguments from criminological and economic theory for how these variables might play a role. Without claiming that individual cases can test the theory, we offer some case narratives to suggest the plausibility of the factors that we propose.

Building UX design for “cognitive democracy”

We benefit so much from technology but technoscientific infrastructure can also be seen to threaten the complexity of mutual relations, interactions, etc. that are features of democratic society. It is common today to speak of the “tragedy of the commons”, the “unusable” internet – even finding a battery charger on Amazon requires a degree in investigative journalism (Gross), machines that compromise our ability to function without them or that replace us (ML, RBA), epistemic bubbles and echo chambers (Nguyen). Is our technoscientific information age a poison or a cure? It is up to us.

“The goal is to make you weaker”: Mental well-being and risks among European cross-border investigative journalists

The increased scale of cross-border journalistic investigations brings about severe challenges: online harassment, physical violence, legal threats, but also emotional challenges and mental stress that can lead to burnout. The latter has never been the focus of studies on cross-border investigative journalistic collaborations. This paper seeks to fill in this gap and contribute to the understanding of how the cross-border aspects of investigative journalists’ work shape their mental well-being. Based on eighteen semi-structured interviews conducted with investigative journalists across Europe in the first half of 2023, this study addresses the following research questions: What are the specific challenges, threats, and risks encountered by investigative journalists working on cross-border collaborations? How do these challenges and risks affect investigative journalists’ mental well-being? What coping mechanisms do investigative journalists employ? Our findings show that cross-border investigative journalists experience a systemic neglect of mental well-being in the profession. Moreover, journalists face country-specific challenges, stemming from varying legal constraints and disparities in institutional support and protection across countries. The lack of safety measures that protect journalists beyond physical safety, multitasking, and the lack of concern for cross-border investigative journalists’ mental well-being can prove particularly challenging for freelancers. At the same time, the cross-border collaborations are depicted as a source of mutual assistance, protection, and a sense of community among international journalists.

The Implications of Crowdfunding on News Production and Distribution Practices in Indonesia's Online Media

This article investigates the crowdfunding journalism model and its implications for the news production and distribution of Project Multatuli (PM), the first crowdfunding media in Indonesia. Therefore, this research utilizes a crowdfunding journalism perspective, a qualitative approach study, and triangulation methods for data collection (in-depth interviews, participant observation, and documentation). The results showed the following findings: First, PM uses a combination funding model of crowdfunding and donor agencies, rather than hybrid funding based on a traditional business model that relies on media owners and advertising. This combination funding model aims to be free from pressure from media owners as investors and profit orientation from advertising revenue. Second, PM creates a transparent, participatory and collaborative co-creation process with its members in content production. Third, PM 'resists' the logic of algorithms through clickbait to increase digital traffic which has implications for the speed and superficiality of coverage. It is a form of PM's dedication to investigative journalism that is committed to in-depth coverage in order to maintain the credibility of the content. Lastly, PM distributes content through national, local and international media networks under creative license. Thus, the distribution strategy is more aimed at expanding the reach of literacy to the general public, rather than just increasing readership.

The ethics of open source investigations: Navigating privacy challenges in a gray zone information landscape

With the exploding availability of online data, digital open-source investigations (OSINV) methods have become increasingly popular in journalism. However, practitioners face novel challenges related to the tension between journalism’s transparency ideals and its duty to safeguard the privacy and security of data subjects. This article explores this tension by drawing on data from eight in-depth interviews with professional open-source investigative journalists in the Netherlands. The findings of our study reveal that OSINV investigators rely heavily on personal assessments and ongoing dialogues with colleagues to make privacy-related editorial choices, as rules and guidelines have only recently emerged. This research provides valuable insights into the intricacies of OSINV journalism, uncovering the delicate balance between journalistic transparency and privacy/security considerations.

Administrative legal principles of human rights-based approach by the police

One of the priority tasks of reforming law enforcement agencies is to build a preventive mechanism based on the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms, protection of society from violence and discrimination, and creation of barrier-free space for people with limited mobility. The multidimensional nature and complexity of the issues requiring statutory regulation in these areas determine the relevance of the subject under study. The purpose of this study was to model the administrative legal mechanism of police activity in which human rights would be optimally and effectively implemented. To fulfil this purpose, the methodology used included a combination of comparative rule-making, system analysis, internal and external induction, constructive cognition and content analysis. It was found that the observance of human rights in police activities is inextricably linked to the implementation of the rule of law and the provision of protective police services. Numerous cases of violations revealed during journalistic investigations and widely discussed by the public have become one of the reasons for the rapid decline in public trust in state law enforcement institutions, and as a result, a substantial obstacle to Ukraine’s integration into the European space. The study analysed the key reasons affecting the effectiveness of administrative legal strategies for ensuring a human rights-based approach in the practical activities of the National Police bodies (units). Specifically, these include transition processes related to the harmonisation of national legislation with international and European standards, low level of material and social security of police officers, insufficient level of professionalism, influence of negative environment, narrow understanding of administrative legal activities in the field of human rights related to the prevention of administrative and criminal offences. The study concluded that the principles of the rule of law, respect for human rights and freedoms and partnership-based interaction with the public are crucial and interrelated in the preventive activities of police. The study outlined the key areas of improvement of national legislation in the field of development and/or optimisation of administrative legal systems for ensuring the functioning of organisational, technical, information, and economic resources as guarantees of the implementation of the declared constitutional rights and freedoms. The results of this study can be used to formulate and improve the norms of national legislation that regulate the activities of law enforcement agencies and determine the content of its guidelines

Sports Journalists as Agents of Change in Nordic Countries

Sports Journalists as Agents of Change: Shifting Political Goalposts in Nordic Countries identifies and describes changes prevalent in political narratives of sports journalism. Although tensions between professional autonomy and commercial influences in sports journalism persist, shifts in public expectations and increased interest in investigative journalism present new possibilities for sports journalists to reshape this field. The research in this thematic issue examines media content and considers how sports journalists reflect on their role, how gender issues are tied to, and addressed by, that role, and how critical sports journalism develops through engagement with relevant national and international sports journalist associations.

Determining the Public Opinion on Rappler as A News Media Critic of the Administration

With the rise of social media and online platforms wherein information is only just a click away, there is still a grey area as to whether online users trust news sites and pages on the digital space. This study aims to assess and analyze the public perception of Rappler as a news media outlet wherein it highlights its role as a news media critic of the Duterte administration. The researchers collected the needed data to identify the public opinion of Filipino adults who are aged 18 and above regarding Rappler's critical way of reporting. This study is supported by data, articles, and related literature that are mainly focused on media trust, media credibility, and related factors towards the reported trust in media. Moreover, this study expounds the surrounding issues related to Rappler's investigative journalism. The study has been operationalized through online surveys and by setting certain eligibility requirements, which served as the qualifier for the respondents before answering the questionnaire. Additionally, this study shows a glimpse of the Media Effects Theory and its correlation to the study's nature. Upon analyzing the gathered data, results show that most respondents trust Rappler as a news media outlet critical of the Philippine government.