Control Of Invasive Alien Species Research Articles

Locating Nesting Sites for Critically Endangered Galápagos Pink Land Iguanas (Conolophus marthae).

Invasive alien species control is recognized worldwide as a priority action to preserve global biodiversity. However, a lack of general life history knowledge for threatened species can impede the effectiveness of conservation actions. Galápagos pink land iguanas (Conolophus marthae) are endemic to Wolf Volcano, Galápagos, Ecuador. These iguanas are threatened by invasive alien species, particularly feral cats, that may affect their small population size. To guarantee the long-term survival of C. marthae, the Galápagos National Park Directorate is considering, along with an ongoing campaign of feral cat control, the implementation of a head-start program. However, the success of this management strategy necessarily relies on the identification of pink iguana nesting grounds, which were still unknown at the onset of this study. We modeled the movement patterns of male and female iguanas during the reproductive season, using location data collected from custom-made remote tracking devices installed on adult pink iguanas in April 2021. We first calculated for each individual the vector of distances from its starting location, which was defined as net displacement. We then used net displacement as the response variable in a generalized additive mixed model with day of the year as the predictor. Based on the hypothesis that males and females may behaviorally differ after mating, we looked for female-specific migratory behavior suggesting females were moving toward nesting areas. The results obtained confirmed our hypothesis, as females exhibited a distinct migratory behavior, reaching a small plateau area inside of Wolf Volcano's caldera and ca. 400 m below the volcano's northern rim. Moreover, once inside the caldera, females displayed a more aggregated distribution pattern. The movement data obtained allowed Galápagos National Park rangers to locate individual pink iguana nests and subsequently to sight and collect the first observed hatchlings of the species. This work constitutes a necessary baseline to perform dedicated studies of pink iguana nests and emerging hatchling iguanas, which is an essential step toward the development of an effective head-start program.

我国外来物种入侵法律防治的对策研究

我国外来物种入侵法律防治的对策研究

Control of invasive alien species: The Giant African snail (Lissachatina fulica) a difficult urban public management challenge

In view of the population growth trends and urbanization processes, one of the current challenges is the surveillance and control of invasive alien species within urban settings, particularly of those species that can serve as vectors or reservoirs of diseases with the potential to affect human health. In this regard, the present study evaluated the public management for the surveillance and control of African snails (Lissachatina fulica) in the city of Santiago de Cali in Colombia between 2016 and 2019 and proposed minimum guidelines for their surveillance and effective control in the urban settings of developing countries. The Giant African snails can be intermediate hosts of various microorganisms that have a great impact on urban public health. The latter may include parasitic, viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases, which are transported by the snail to homes or nearby areas exposing humans and animals to contagion. In the Colombian case the most important are Angiostrongylus parasites, which can cause eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, gastrointestinal disorders in humans and pulmonary hemorrhage in dogs. However, it is also possible that the same snails carry other nematodes such as Aleurostrogylus which can affect cats and dogs in urban areas. Comprehensive actions are required to address the problems related to urban invasive species such the African snail in Santiago de Cali as well as to develop environmental public policies and implement through municipal and state public management. We concluded that government action should be supported by reliable data to identify cases in situ, and to determine pest, environmental, and ecoepidemiological variables. Qualitative and quantitative data analyses will contribute to effective decision-making and the development of control protocols designed for each specific urban scenario.

A review of volunteers’ motivations to monitor and control invasive alien species

People make an important contribution to the study and management of biological invasions, as many monitoring and control projects rely heavily on volunteer assistance. Understanding the reasons why people participate in such projects is critical for successful recruitment and retention of volunteers. We used a meta-synthesis approach to extract, analyze and synthesize the available information from 28 selected studies investigating motivations of volunteers to engage in monitoring and control of invasive alien species (IAS). Our findings show how motivations fit three broad themes, reflecting environmental concerns, social motivations, and personal reasons. An important outcome of this study is the description of motivations that are unique to the IAS context: supporting IAS management, protecting native species and habitats, and livelihood/food/income protection or opportunities. In addition, our study reflects on important methodological choices for investigating volunteer motivations as well as ethical issues that may arise in practice. We conclude with a set of recommendations for project design and future research on volunteer motivations in IAS contexts, emphasizing the importance of collaboration with social scientists.

Know your enemy: Application of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy to invasive species control.

Extreme weather and globalisation leave our climate vulnerable to invasion by alien species, which have negative impacts on the economy, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. Rapid and accurate identification is key to the control of invasive alien species. However, visually similar species hinder conservation efforts, for example hybrids within the Japanese Knotweed complex.We applied the novel method of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics (mathematics applied to chemical data) to historic herbarium samples, taking 1580 spectra in total. Samples included five species from within the interbreeding Japanese Knotweed complex (including three varieties of Japanese Knotweed), six hybrids and five species from the wider Polygonaceae family. Spectral data from herbarium specimens were analysed with several chemometric techniques: support vector machines (SVM) for differentiation between plant types, supported by ploidy levels; principal component analysis loadings and spectral biomarkers to explore differences between the highly invasive Reynoutria japonica var. japonica and its non-invasive counterpart Reynoutria japonica var. compacta; hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) to investigate the relationship between plants within the Polygonaceae family, of the Fallopia, Reynoutria, Rumex and Fagopyrum genera.ATR-FTIR spectroscopy coupled with SVM successfully differentiated between plant type, leaf surface and geographical location, even in herbarium samples of varying age. Differences between Reynoutria japonica var. japonica and Reynoutria japonica var. compacta included the presence of two polysaccharides, glucomannan and xyloglucan, at higher concentrations in Reynoutria japonica var. japonica than Reynoutria japonica var. compacta. HCA analysis indicated that potential genetic linkages are sometimes masked by environmental factors; an effect that can either be reduced or encouraged by altering the input parameters. Entering the absorbance values for key wavenumbers, previously highlighted by principal component analysis loadings, favours linkages in the resultant HCA dendrogram corresponding to expected genetic relationships, whilst environmental associations are encouraged using the spectral fingerprint region.The ability to distinguish between closely related interbreeding species and hybrids, based on their spectral signature, raises the possibility of using this approach for determining the origin of Japanese knotweed infestations in legal cases where the clonal nature of plants currently makes this difficult and for the targeted control of species and hybrids. These techniques also provide a new method for supporting biogeographical studies.

Indicators keep progress honest: A call to track both the quantity and quality of protected areas

Indicators keep progress honest: A call to track both the quantity and quality of protected areas

Fishery Resources, Conservation Challenges and Management Strategies in Ethiopia

The purpose of this review article is to explore the fishery resources, potentials, conservation challenges, and management strategies of Ethiopian water bodies. Ethiopia is one of the landlocked countries in the horn of Africa characterized with a wide range of ecological, geographical, edaphic, and climatic conditions that account for a wide diversity of its biological resources both in terms of flora and fauna. It has a high diversity of Ichthyologic Fauna, accounts for over 200 fish species. In average, the production potential yield of Ethiopia is accounted for 94,500 tons per annum in different water bodies. However, the actual production is 38,370, still far below the estimated potential yield. The main factors contributed to low production of fish including illegal fishing activities, lack of awareness, overfishing, wetland degradation, deforestation, invasive species, lack of infrastructure, and technologies. Capacity building towards aquatic policies, legislation and regulation, community empowerment, pollution control, invasive alien species control, threatened species conservation, integrated watershed management plan, illegal fishing, area and seasonal closure, and public awareness creation is needed to save the water bodies and to increase fishery production.

Fighting on the edge: reproductive effort and population structure of the invasive coral Tubastraea coccinea in its southern Atlantic limit of distribution following control activities

The detection and control of invasive alien species in marine ecosystems is especially challenging because it is difficult to visualize the full extension of an invasion, while control options are often limited. The invasive scleractinian coral Tubastraea coccinea have spread over 8000 km of the Atlantic coastline, from Florida in the USA to southern Brazil, mainly in association with oil and gas platforms. This invasive coral threatens endemic species, reduces native coral recruitment, and modifies communities and trophic interactions, posing a relevant threat to shallow Atlantic reefs. The main aim of our study was to assess the effectiveness of an ongoing T. coccinea control program by analyzing the results of control interventions on population structure and cover of the target species in its southern Atlantic limit of distribution. We also describe the reproductive effort of T. coccinea in a 12-month time span. Between 2012 and 2019, almost 14,000 colonies were removed, most of them of small size (< 5 polyps). The highest reproductive effort was observed in September. Changes in T. coccinea cover, population structure and potential local propagule supply were observed. Control activities led to a reduction in up to half the cover of the invaded area, maintained the majority of the population in non-reproductive sizes, and consequently lowered the potential local propagule supply. Our paper highlights the fundamental role of control in preventing the local spread of T. coccinea. Recommendations on management frequency and timing are also discussed in order to contribute to the improvement of management efficiency.

The good, the bad and the ugly of COVID-19 lockdown effects on wildlife conservation: Insights from the first European locked down country

The COVID-19 pandemic zoonosis has determined extensive lockdowns worldwide that provide an unprecedented opportunity to understand how large-scale shifts of human activities can impact wildlife. We addressed the impacts of the COVID-19 lockdown on wildlife in Italy, the first European country that performed a countrywide lockdown, and identified potentially beneficial and negative consequences for wildlife conservation and management. We combined a qualitative analysis of social media information with field data from multiple taxa, data from citizen science projects, and questionnaires addressed to managers of protected areas. Both social media information and field data suggest that a reduction of human disturbance allowed wildlife to exploit new habitats and increase daily activity. The field data confirmed some positive effects on wildlife conservation, such as an increase in species richness in temporarily less-disturbed habitats, a higher breeding success of an aerial insectivorous bird, and reduction of road-killing of both amphibians and reptiles. Despite some positive effects, our data also highlighted several negative impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on wildlife. The lower human disturbance linked to lockdown was in fact beneficial for invasive alien species. Results from questionnaires addressed to managers of protected areas highlighted that the COVID-19 lockdown interrupted actions for the control of invasive alien species, and hampered conservation activities targeting threatened taxa. Furthermore, the reduction of enforcement could cause a surge of illegal killing of wildlife. The COVID-19 crisis, besides having deep socio-economic impacts, might profoundly affect wildlife conservation, with potentially long-lasting effects.

Pest demography critically determines the viability of synthetic gene drives for population control

Synthetic gene drives offer a novel solution for the control of invasive alien species. CRISPR-based gene drives can positively bias their own inheritance, and comprise a DNA sequence that is replicated by homologous recombination. Since gene drives can be positioned to silence fertility or developmental genes, they could be used for population suppression. However, the production of resistant alleles following self-replication errors threatens the technology’s viability for pest eradication in real-world applications. Further, a robust assessment of how pest demography impacts the expected progression of gene drives through populations is currently lacking. We used a deterministic, two-sex, birth-death model to investigate how demographic assumptions affect the efficiency of suppression drives for controlling invasive rodents on islands, for two different gene-drive strategies. We show that mass-action reproduction results in overly optimistic eradication outcomes when compared to the more realistic assumption of polygynous breeding. When polygyny was assumed, both gene-strategies failed due to the evolution of resistance unless a reproductive Allee effect (reduced reproductive rates at low population density) was also included; although model outcomes were highly sensitive to the strength of this effect. Increasing the size of the initial gene-drive introduction (up to 10% of carrying capacity) had little impact on population outcomes. Understanding the demography of a population targeted for eradication is critical before the viability of gene-drive suppression can be adequately assessed.

Empowered communities or “cheap labour”? Engaging volunteers in the rationalised management of invasive alien species in Great Britain

Volunteers are increasingly involved in the delivery of nature conservation policies, usually supported by a twofold rationale: volunteering can (a) enhance citizen participation in environmental governance and (b) ensure a workforce is in place to support conservation work in times of budget shortages. Here, we ask how these two rationales correspond to volunteers' own motivations to engage in a specific nature conservation activity, namely the control of invasive alien species (IAS). We use qualitative interviews with professional project managers, local group leaders, and volunteers to examine the interactions between policies aiming to rationalise the management of IAS and the motivations for and goals of volunteer engagement. Our findings suggest that although volunteering can lead to positive conservation outcomes, satisfying experiences and empowerment, the different interests do not always align in practice. We investigate the implications of strategies that aim to improve the efficiency of invasive species and volunteer management, and discuss organisational arrangements that reconcile different objectives.

Five major invasive alien tree species in European Union forest habitat types of the Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions

Invasive alien species are a threat to protected areas, species, and habitats worldwide. At the European level, the control of invasive alien species is a major goal of the EU Biodiversity Strategy, and a cornerstone, in this sense, is the Regulation (EU) no.1143/2014 on invasive alien species. In this study, we focus on the Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions of Europe (defined in art. 1 of the Habitats Directive; 92/43/EEC), and aim to give an overview of the main protected forest habitat types threatened by invasive alien species, and focus on five major invasive alien tree species (Acer negundo, Ailanthus altissima, Prunus serotina, Quercus rubra, and Robinia pseudoacacia). We considered the assessment reports under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive for the period 2007–2012, and six documents on the interpretation of habitats, to identify those most threatened by invasive alien species and in particular by the five invasive alien trees. We also assessed selected examples of impacts by these alien tree species on different species groups within Natura 2000 sites to highlight potential effects on biodiversity. Riparian forest habitats and oak dominated woodlands are among the most prone to invasion within the two biogeographical regions. A. altissima and R. pseudoacacia are the most reported invasive alien trees in these protected forest habitat types. Furthermore, examples of the impacts of these tree species have indicated potential detrimental effects on forest habitats structure and functions, and on single species listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives. In conclusion, we emphasise the need for effective management and systematic monitoring of these five invasive alien tree species within Natura 2000 sites.

Control of invasive alien species in Japan —Future and past—

Control of invasive alien species in Japan —Future and past—

中国实施2020年全球生物多样性目标的进展

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 中国实施2020年全球生物多样性目标的进展 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201411142254 作者: 作者单位: 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家科技支撑计划项目（2012BAC01B01）；环保公益性行业科研专项（201409061） Assessing China's progress toward the 2020 Global Biodiversity Targets Author: Affiliation: Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:针对日益严峻的生物多样性丧失形势，国际社会于2010年通过了《生物多样性战略计划》（2011-2020年）。该战略计划确定了2020年全球生物多样性目标。采用“压力-状态-惠益-响应”模型，建立了评估2020年目标进展的指标体系。该指标体系包括生物多样性现状、生态系统服务、压力和响应4个方面，涉及17个一级指标、42个二级指标。研究表明，除目标2、16和18因缺乏相应指标无法评估外，目标1、3、4、5、7、10、11、14、15、17、19、20的相关评估指标均有不同程度的改善，表明这些目标的实施正沿着正确的轨道推进，特别是目标3（鼓励措施）、目标5（减少生境退化和丧失）、目标11（强化保护区系统和有效管理）、目标14（恢复和保障重要生态系统服务）、目标15（增强生态系统的复原力和碳储量）进展较大；但目标5中的草原生态系统保护，目标6（可持续渔业）、目标8（控制环境污染）、目标9（防治外来入侵物种）、目标12（保护受威胁物种）、目标13（保护遗传资源）的相关评估指标大多呈现恶化的趋势，表明虽然已开展了大量工作，但尚需采取更加有效的策略和措施才能实现这些目标。今后应进一步开发生物多样性价值、可持续消费、生态退化、农林渔业对生物多样性的影响、气候变化对生物多样性的影响、保护区的生态代表性和管理有效性、遗传资源和相关传统知识的获取与惠益分享等方面的指标，更加重视生态功能和生物多样性的恢复，重视濒危物种和遗传资源的保护以及外来入侵物种的防控。 Abstract:In 2002, the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) committed to achieving a significant reduction in the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. After failing to meet this goal, the international communities renewed their commitments and, in 2010, adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including the 2020 global biodiversity targets (Aichi Biodiversity Targets). As a Party to the CBD, it is important for China to assess progress toward the 2020 targets, and identify gaps and future priorities for biodiversity conservation. We created an indicator system for assessing the 2020 targets based on a pressure-state-benefit-response framework. The indicator system contains 17 Class A indicators and 42 Class B indicators. It covers four major aspects: (1) the status of biodiversity (the extent of forests, grasslands, wetlands, and deserts; total standing stock volume; stock volume of natural forests; total output of fresh grass in natural grasslands; the Marine Trophic Index; the Red List Index; and traditional varieties and breeds used in production); (2) ecosystem services (supply of goods; water regulation; windbreaks; sand control; soil conservation; per capita annual net income of rural households; and the number of people in poverty in regions where natural forest conservation projects were implemented); (3) pressure (annual waste water emissions; COD from industrial wastewater; SO2 from exhaust gas; soot from exhaust gas and industrial solid wastes; annual application of pesticides and fertilizers; climate change; the number of new invasive alien species found every two decades; and the number and batch of harmful species intercepted by customs and port authorities); and (4) response (the number and area of protected areas; forest growing stock in counties where natural forest conservation projects were implemented; capacity of flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) units; treatment rate of municipal wastewater; comprehensive utilization rate of solid waste; area of solar water heaters; the number of solar stoves; annual output of agricultural waste disposal projects; websites about China's biodiversity found using a Google search; the number of academic papers on biodiversity identified through a search of the VIP literature database; and investments into projects on natural forest resource protection, wildlife conservation in nature reserves, and wetland conservation). We assessed progress toward the 2020 Biodiversity Targets using these biodiversity indicators. For Targets 2, 16, and 18, no assessments were made because of a lack of relevant national indicators. The indicators identified various levels of improvement in Targets 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, and 20; China is on track toward meeting these targets. In particular, considerable progress has been made toward Target 3 (incentive measures), Target 5 (reduction in habitat degradation and loss for ecosystems other than grasslands), Target 11 (increasing protected areas and strengthening management effectiveness), Target 14 (restoring important ecosystem services), and Target 15 (reinforcing ecosystem resilience and carbon sequestration). However, decreasing trends were noted for Target 5 (primarily for indicators of grassland conservation), Target 6 (sustainable fisheries), Target 8 (controlling environmental pollution), Target 12 (protecting endangered species), and Target 13 (protecting genetic resources). This suggests that, although we have already done tremendous work, we should develop more effective strategies and take practical measures toward achieving these targets. In general, biodiversity continues to decline in China. There are many challenges for biodiversity conservation because of wildlife habitat loss or degradation, severe pollution of key river basins and marine areas, the spread of invasive alien species, large-scale monoculture plantations, and climate change. Thus, more effective indicators need to be developed for the values of biodiversity, sustainable consumption, ecosystem degradation, representativeness and management effectiveness of protected areas, access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing from their use, and the effects of agriculture, aquaculture, forestry, and climate change on biodiversity. In addition, more attention should be given to the restoration of ecosystem functions and biodiversity, conservation of endangered species and genetic resources, and prevention and control of invasive alien species. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Strategies for empowering the local people to participate in forest restoration

Within various parts of the tropics and temperate regions, there are increasingly more efforts towards reforestation or restoration. Interventions in the tropics however, have not adequately addressed the needs of local people compelling them to degrade forests. We conducted a study in and around Mabira Forest Reserve in Uganda with the aim of assessing locally proposed restoration techniques and conditions for empowering local people to raise their willingness to participate in forest restoration practices. We specifically set out to; (i) identify proposed techniques to restore the degraded forests, and (ii) determine the pre-conditions for supporting local people’s participation in restoration activities. Data were collected using individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participatory forest surveys. The findings show that the local people mainly engaged in practices that address their needs concurrently. The most reported practices include: planting trees on farm, enrichment tree planting in the forest, control of soil erosion, and control of invasive alien species. The main pre-conditions for their participation in forest restoration is assurance for more access to forest resources. The efficiency of local people in restoration will be enhanced by strengthening their capacity for collaborative forest management, raising their awareness on restoration, building their capacity, as well as continuous monitoring by forest managers.

Use of a native predator for the control of an invasive amphibian

Context The control of invasive alien species is essential for securing native biodiversity. As for the American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw 1802), suspected to cause ecological damage around large parts of the globe, comprehensive management techniques are currently absent. Aims To fill this gap, opportunities arising from biomanipulation of permanent water bodies inhabited by fish were explored. Methods A multi-annual experiment was performed in small and shallow ponds, and effects of complete drawdown (with amphibian and fish removal) and predation (introduction of originally occurring native northern pike, Esox lucius) on non-indigenous bullfrogs were investigated. Key results The presence of pike lead to a strong decline in bullfrog tadpole numbers, whereas no effect of drawdown was observed. Also, communities receiving pike harboured substantially less small and mostly planktivorous fish species (e.g. pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus, and topmouth gudgeon, Pseudorasbora parva). Conclusions The reduction in bullfrog tadpoles may be assigned to both direct and indirect effects induced by pike. First, direct pike predation on tadpoles was observed. Second, as the occurrence of macroinvertebrate-feeding pumpkinseed was low in the presence of pike, the indirect effect of predation by macroinvertebrates on tadpoles may significantly increase, leading to tadpole decline. Implications Biomanipulation of permanent water bodies inhabited by fish can thus be regarded as a candidate for effective and sustainable control of invasive bullfrog. Piscivorous fish introduction may be applied in the specific type of water body, but requires careful consideration of the indigenous status of the introduced species, angling purposes, or specific nature values.

Implementing invasive species management in an adaptive management framework

Adaptive management theory has attracted substantial interest in recent years, in natural resource management in general and also for invasive alien species management. However, whilst many theoretical and conceptual advances have been made, documented cases of practical applications are rare. Coupling invasive species management components with adaptive feedback processes is not without challenges, requiring a substantial change in the thinking and practice of all those involved. Drawing on a decade of experience in South African National Parks, we suggest an approach to implementing adaptive management for controlling invasive alien species. Whilst efforts have been made to advance components of the overall management strategy, the absence of a framework for decision making and feedback mechanisms, inflexibility in the system and shortcomings in the governance structure are all identified as barriers to learning and knowledge integration for the purposes of effective invasive alien species management. The framework provided here, encompassing documents, committees and processes, is aimed at addressing these shortcomings.Conservation implication: Adaptive management theory offers a robust tool for managing inherently complex systems. Its practical application, however, requires distilling the theory into useable functions. We offer a framework to advance implementation of strategic adaptive management for the control of invasive alien species using experiences gained from South African National Parks.

Control and eradication of invasive mammals in Great Britain

This paper provides a 'long view' of the eradication and control of invasive mammals by reviewing the management of 24 mammalian species that have been introduced into Great Britain since the Neolithic period and have subsequently established free-living populations in the wild. The approach provides examples of the issues faced when managing populations and examines some of the lessons that can be learned from successes and failures. The species are covered in the order of introduction, with the control/eradication of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), coypu (Myocastor coypus) and American mink (Mustela vison) considered in more detail. The species accounts are set within the context of commitments for the control of invasive alien species made by parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity and guidance provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Council of Europe. These have led to improvements in the process for assessing risks and co-ordinating action. However, despite some notable cases documented here, there have been few successful eradication programmes carried out in Europe. This paper argues that there is a case for building on the improved frameworks that are being developed in the United Kingdom and elsewhere and for being more ambitious with goals for the management of invasive alien species.

The role of World Trade OrganIzation and the "three sisters" (the World Organisation for Animal Health, the International Plant protection Convention and the Codex alimentarius Commission) in the control of invasive alien species and the preservation of biodiversity

The missions of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) include the design of surveillance and control methods for infectious transboundary animal diseases (including zoonoses), the provision of guarantees concerning animal health and animal production food safety, and the setting of standards for, and promotion of, animal welfare. The OIE role in setting standards for the sanitary safety of international trade in animals and animal products is formally recognised in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement). While the primary focus of the OIE is on animal diseases and zoonoses, the OIE has also been working within the WTO framework to examine possible contributions the organisation can make to achieving the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity, particularly to preventing the global spread of invasive alien species (IAS). However, at the present time, setting standards for invasive species (other than those connected to the cause and distribution of diseases listed by the OIE) is outside the OIE mandate. Any future expansion of the OIE mandate would need to be decided by its Members and resources (expertise and financial contributions) for an extended standard-setting work programme secured. The other international standard-setting organisations referenced by the SPS Agreement are the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The IPPC mandate and work programme address IAS and the protection of biodiversity. The CAC is not involved in this field.

Livestock biodiversity

This paper describes the institutional background against which invasiveness is considered with regard to livestock genetic diversity. The human-made nature and extensive spread of a few domesticated animal species for global food production is a feature of agricultural diversity that complicates the simple, negative view of invasive species. The different impacts of livestock species on natural biodiversity, of breed diversity within species, and of within-breed diversity on agricultural biodiversity are discussed. Livestock production continues to threaten natural biodiversity. The increasing demand for food of animal origin, the productivity and technology differentials, as well as the information and awareness bias, tend to favour international high-output breeds over local breeds. This will increase their 'invasiveness' in the market economy if current policy distortions continue. Several measures are proposed to control genetic erosion through uncontrolled gene flow. Countries are responsible not only for control of invasive alien species under the Convention on Biological Diversity but also for sustainable use and conservation of animal genetic resources, and for food security; they must balance trade-offs between these broad policy objectives.