Introduction Of Electronic Computers Research Articles

Screening For Colorectal Cancer in the Age of Simulation Models: A Historical Lens

Screening For Colorectal Cancer in the Age of Simulation Models: A Historical Lens

Automaatse infotöötluse algus: perfokaartidel põhinevad infosüsteemid [Abstract: The beginning of automatic information processing: information systems on punch cards

Abstract: The beginning of automatic information processing: information systems on punch cards
 Toward the end of the 19th century, several different national bureaucratic institutions and private enterprises had evolved and expanded to such an extent that new information management tools and methods were necessary. The electromechanical data-processing system developed by Hermann Hollerith in the 1880s, which operated on the basis of punch cards, can be regarded as the predecessor of modern automatic digital data-processing systems. Information storage and data processing systems were accomplished through punch cards, i.e. carton cards in a standardised form. Information was punched onto the cards by perforating in fixed positions. Hollerith invented a number of electromechanical devices that could punch information on cards and process the cards that were carrying information. The sorter machine made it possible to sort cards by the perforated marker in a column, and the tabulator enabled counting and adding up cards.
 This article treats the development of punch card-based systems by demonstrating the primary modifications and correlating them with the purposes of such systems. In order to do this, I will divide the punch card-based systems into five generations. The system was created in the United States in the 1880s to process large volumes of statistical data that had been recorded in population censuses. Several countries applied this system in everyday practice up until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1894, information systems capable of processing statistical data evolved out of this development. These systems were still in use even after the end of World War II. Solutions that facilitated bookkeeping were developed by 1906; such systems served until the 1960s, in some places even longer. Population registers based on punch cards were elaborated between 1935 and 1937, and were used by various countries until the 1960s. Upon the introduction of electronic computers after World War II, punch cards were used to enter data and programs into the computers.
 Punch card-based systems were the first automatic systems that were able to process large quantities of data. They were the most complex information systems from the end of the 19th century until the end of World War II, offering the most multifarious options. After the introduction of electronic computers, the application of such systems was consistently scaled back, but they were still widely in use until the mid-20th century.
 The experience and technical knowledge gained while applying punch card-based information systems laid the groundwork for further digital developments in computer systems. As both of these systems were used in parallel over a considerably long period of time, knowledge was shared between them. To represent data units on punch cards, data had to be encoded. This shared knowledge resulted in significant gains in the processing of information, specifically the division of data into discrete, distinctly specified units to mechanically process information, and the representation of data units on punch cards via encoding.
 The codes of the early punch card-based systems were case based, and had been elaborated according to the data to be analysed, and to the purposes of processing. Further developments made these encoding systems more universal, so that they came to be used as standards. Punch cards were the first data carriers that could be read by machines. Corresponding devices were employed to punch, read and process information on cards. The initial versions of these systems were easily read by the naked eye, but later the systems evolved to become completely number based. The constant increase in the amount of data recorded on the cards was the result of more complex tasks, as well as the growing abundance of calculation options on the tabulators themselves. Programming with changeable setups, which characterised the first generations of programming, was followed by conditional programming with punch cards themselves. Increased processing speed was one of the milestones in the development of punch card-based systems. The systems were characterised by a vast universality. Data, once recorded on the cards, was available for repeated analysis, regardless of the objective. Punch cards were the first databases that could be processed automatically. Nonetheless, operating mechanical information systems required a firmer organisation and standardisation of the working process.

Coming to Grips with Univac

When it made successful use of magnetic tape, the Univac I pioneered the way for federal and commercial applications with extensive files. But pioneering posed many challenges because technology barely supported the production and introduction of electronic computers. This article is a recollection of efforts the US Air Force made to accommodate and use the first Univac moved out of the factory.

Eigenvalue computation in the 20th century

This paper sketches the main research developments in the area of computational methods for eigenvalue problems during the 20th century. The earliest of such methods dates back to work of Jacobi in the middle of the 19th century. Since computing eigenvalues and vectors is essentially more complicated than solving linear systems, it is not surprising that highly significant developments in this area started with the introduction of electronic computers around 1950. In the early decades of this century, however, important theoretical developments had been made from which computational techniques could grow. Research in this area of numerical linear algebra is very active, since there is a heavy demand for solving complicated problems associated with stability and perturbation analysis for practical applications. For standard problems, powerful tools are available, but there still remain many open problems. It is the intention of this contribution to sketch the main developments of this century, especially as they relate to one another, and to give an impression of the state of the art at the turn of our century.

The “Flow Line System” which has applied to Hull Works in shipbuilding Industry

It has been so far said that the flow line system might be applied mainly to the mass production industry, while the application of this system is difficult to the unique product production industry in view of the diversity of products.Accordingly, the flow line system has been adopted in the shipbuilding industry, in such limited cases as in the prefabrication stage of hull assemblies which compose parallel part of tanker and has failed to contribute to the improvement of general production system of shipbuilding industry.Through the study on the intrinsic nature of flow line system, however, the authors have developed a new system of control technique so that a group of techniques fostered in the mass production can be applied to shipbuilding industry which is typical in diversified products production.This new control system has been applied to shipbuilding industry, characteristically utilizing the flow line system. Accordingly, this system can be applied in a similar manner to the other territory of diversified products production, e. g., machine industry.The promotion of this new production system in shipbuilding industry has thus marked an epoch-making development through the introduction of electronic computers into the planning and control system of production and thereby maximum efficiency is realized in shipyard management including not only hull works but also outfitting works.

New Production System based on Statistical Quality Control

A revolutionary change was brought after the world war II into the production engineering of shipbuilding industry through the remarkable development of welding techniques. Following such technological innovation, the efforts for the modernization have continously been made and have recently been exerted actively in the mechanization and automation of manual operation mainly in welding, the introduction of electronic computer into production control, as well as the rationalization of production process by the adoption of conveyor system.In spite of these technical developments, more efforts have to be done in the solution of problem of the labour-intensive shipbuilding industry, which is suffering at present from the “prospertity without profit”.To cope with this difficulty of shipbuilding industry, the authors conducted the study on the characteristics of shipbuilding industry in comparison with the other modern industries. This study has revealed that the standardized production process can be settled on the basis of the steadiness of quality by the introduction of statistical quality control, and further that such work system with high productivity as is in general called “continuous flow production system” can be also adopted in the shipbuilding industry. Moreover, the authors have proved this fact by applying it actually to the hull construction works and have made a success of such modernization as is shown in the automation and specialization of welding in their company.Thus, it has been made clear that only on the basis of substantial improvement of production system through the application of mass prduction method, a series of modernization measures such as mechanization of manual labour, adoption of conveyor system and production control with use of electronic computer, will be realized on a full scale.

The Electronic Computor in Survey Adjustments at the University of British Columbia

The introduction of electronic computers at the University of British Columbia has resulted in projects that were previously considered impossible. One prograin in particular, the solution of a band matrix by partitioning, has meant that a very large array of normal equations can be solved. Two projects, the adjustment of level nets in Vancouver and the adjustment of large blocks of D.L.S. systems, will make use of this program.

Automatic Character Reading for Data Processing Systems

STUDENTS of administration, whether practicing or academic, have an obligation to evaluate the trends of technology and their relations to organization and management. The administrative analysts, the planners, and the executives should attempt to inform themselves about current developments and outlook in technology which are likely to affect their particular universe of concern. The effects of technological change appear in every process of administration. They affect the nature of the executive job, patterns of centralization-decentralization, the setting of standards, and administrative planning-long range, medium range, and even short range. This paper is written to present for adminislution which is already taking place with the introduction of electronic computers for processing accounting and statistical information with fantastic speed and accuracy. Any data system can be symbolized with three components: input, processor, and output. This symbolism is not limited to a machine system. For example, handwritten invoices (INPUT) can be summarized by a clerk (PROCESSOR) in a hand operation into a report (OUTPUT) for combination with other accounting data or for direct use by management. An automatic system using equipment such as an IBM 650 electronic computer may involve the following components: