Intramural Athletes Research Articles

Accuracy and precision of multiple body composition methods and associations with muscle strength in athletes of varying hydration: The Da Kine Study

BackgroundAthletes vary in hydration status due to ongoing training regimes, diet demands, and extreme exertion. With water being one of the largest body composition compartments, its variation can cause misinterpretation of body composition assessments meant to monitor strength and training progress. In this study, we asked what accessible body composition approach could best quantify body composition in athletes with a variety of hydration levels. MethodsThe Da Kine Study recruited collegiate and intramural athletes to undergo a variety of body composition assessments including air-displacement plethysmography (ADP), deuterium-oxide dilution (D2O), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), underwater-weighing (UWW), 3D-optical (3DO) imaging, and bioelectrical impedance (BIA). Each of these methods generated 2- or 3-compartment body composition estimates of fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) and was compared to equivalent measures of the criterion 6-compartment model (6CM) that accounts for variance in hydration. Body composition by each method was used to predict abdominal and thigh strength, assessed by isokinetic/isometric dynamometry. ResultsIn total, 70 (35 female) athletes with a mean age of 21.8 ± 4.2 years were recruited. Percent hydration (Body Water6CM/FFM6CM) had substantial variation in both males (63- 73%) and females (58- 78%). ADP and DXA FM and FF M had moderate to substantial agreement with the 6C model (Lin’s Concordance Coefficient [CCC] = 0.90-0.95) whereas the other measures had lesser agreement (CCC < 0.90) with one exception of 3DO FFM in females (CCC = 0.91). All measures of FFM produced excellent precision with %CV < 1.0 %. However, FM measures in general had worse precision (% CV < 2.0%). Increasing quartiles (significant p<0.001 trend) of 6CM FFM resulted in increasing strength measures in males and females. Moreover, the stronger the agreement between the alternative methods to the 6CM, the more robust their correlation with strength, irrespective of hydration status. ConclusionThe criterion 6CM showed the best association to strength regardless of the hydration status of the athletes for both males and females. Simpler methods showed high precision for both FM and FFM and those with the strongest agreement to the 6CM had the highest strength associations. Summary BoxThis study compared various body composition analysis methods in 70 athletes with varying states of hydration to the criterion 6-compartment model and assessed their relationship to muscle strength. The results showed that accurate and precise estimates of body composition can be determined in athletes, and a more accurate body composition measurement produces better strength estimates. The best laboratory-based techniques were air displacement plethysmography and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, while the commercial methods had moderate-poor agreement. Prioritizing accurate body composition assessment ensures better strength estimates in athletes.

Initial examination of the mental health disorders: screening instrument for athletes.

There is a need to psychometrically develop assessment instruments capable of screening mental health disorders in athlete populations. The current study was conducted to determine reliability, validity and clinical utility of the Mental Health Disorders Screening Instrument for Athletes (MHDSIA). 259 collegiate athletes completed the MHDSIA. Factor analysis determined a single factor with good internal consistency, and this factor was positively correlated with an established measure of psychiatric symptomology (Symptom Checklist 90-R), demonstrating its concurrent validity. An optimum clinical cutoff score (i.e., 32) was determined using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analyses to assist appropriate mental health referrals. Results suggest the MHSIA is a reliable, valid, and relatively quick and easy to interpret screen for the broad spectrum of mental health disorders in collegiate athletes. As expected, NCAA athletes reported lower MHDSIA scores than club and intramural athletes, while males reported similar severity scores as females.

Exploring the effect of napping on sleep quality and duration in collegiate athletes

Purpose The purpose of this study was to extend research on napping and sleep behaviors in collegiate athletes, and to compare nappers and non-nappers on sleep quality and duration. Methods: Current varsity, club, and intramural athletes between 18-29 years completed the Short Napping Behavior Scale, Pittsburgh Quality Sleep Index, Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Results: Approximately 72% (129/179) reported napping. There were no significant differences in outcomes between nap frequency groups on sleep quality (Χ 2(3)=4.97, p=.17) or duration (Χ 2(3)=1.20, p=.75). Moreover, there was no significant differences for nap length groups on sleep quality (Χ 2(3)=7.03, p=.07) or duration (Χ 2(3)=1.32, p=.72). Furthermore, there were no significant differences for nap timing groups on sleep quality (Χ 2(3)=1.54, p=.67) or duration (Χ 2(3)=2.43, p=.49). Conclusion: In a sample of collegiate athletes, nap frequency, length, and timing were not associated with worse sleep quality or duration.

Impact of an inter-professional concussion awareness program for intramural athletes on students’ readiness for inter-professional learning

Abstract Sports-related concussions are the third leading cause of traumatic brain injuries in student athletes throughout the country. In a survey of all NCAA member institutions, most respondents (92%) indicated that their school had a concussion management plan and most respondents (76%) indicated that their institution had a process for annual athlete concussion education.1 However, it is unclear how much education and training on concussion that intramural athletes receive at the college level. Two inter-professional teams comprised of graduate students from four health science disciplines presented 30–45 min concussion awareness programs to student intramural athletes. The objectives of this program were to promote effective communication, to improve readiness for inter-professional training, and to better understand each discipline's scope of practice related to concussion prevention, diagnosis, and management. Training teams were assessed pre- and post-presentation utilizing a modified “Readiness of health care students for inter-professional learning” (RIPLS) instrument and a knowledge assessment. Inter-professional education team competencies and oral communication skills were assessed utilizing a presentation scoring rubric. Significant differences were identified between pre- and post-presentation results in both the RIPLS and knowledge assessments. Student instructors' perceptions were that when they engaged in their discipline-specific role in concussion management, they gained a better understanding of the roles of other health professionals and increased their overall knowledge. This project allowed inter-professional student teams to increase their readiness for inter-professional training, knowledge, and scope of practice of other disciplines related to concussion prevention, diagnosis, and management strategies.

Applying in life the skills learned in sport: A grounded theory

ObjectivesThe life skills process (i.e., sport to life) involves three interrelated stages: (a) life skills learning in sport, (b) life skills transfer, and (c) life skills application in at least one life domain beyond sport (Pierce, Gould, & Camiré, 2017). The purpose of the study was to examine how athletes apply in life the skills learned or refined in sport in order to develop new theoretical explanations for the third stage of the life skills process (i.e., application). DesignA grounded theory methodology (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). MethodData collection occurred over 10 months, involving interviews, chronological charts, timelines, and journals with university intramural athletes (n = 13). Social agents (n = 29) playing key roles in the athletes’ lives (e.g., parents, partners, work colleagues) were theoretically sampled and interviewed. Data analysisData analysis involved an iterative process of open coding, axial coding, and theoretical integration. ResultsThe substantive grounded theory is constructed on the core category of “mutually beneficial person-context regulations”. Within the theory, skill application is framed as an ongoing process that involves four steps (a) decision-making, (b) application, (c) appraisal, and (d) adaptation. ConclusionsThe substantive grounded theory puts forth theoretical explanations as to how athletes apply in their everyday lives the skills they deem to have learned in sport.

An Interdisciplinary Approach to a Well-Rounded Campus Healthcare Delivery System

An injury care clinic (ICC) as part of a comprehensive campus-wide healthcare system is a cost-effective way to optimize the flow of patient care utilizing a collaborative model of healthcare in a time of physician shortage. Services include: basic first aid, injury evaluation, acute injury care, basic rehabilitation, preventative techniques including taping and stretching, and professional referrals. The ICC provides care to previously underserved campus community members, focusing on: club sport and intramural athletes, recreation center users, and the general student body, in addition to faculty and staff, going beyond the varsity athlete. The ICC functions through the efforts of athletic trainers, physicians, fitness specialists, administrators, faculty, and students across disciplines. After 3 years, the clinic has serviced more than 2,500 unique patients exceeding 4,800 patient encounters, demonstrating outcomes that access to affordable healthcare options with a licensed healthcare provider are warranted and needed.

Epidemiology of Posterior Glenohumeral Instability in a Young Athletic Population

Background: While several studies have observed the incidence of posterior glenohumeral instability in selected populations, there are no data from large-scale population-based studies with corresponding athletic exposure data to calculate incidence rates (IRs) and associated risk factors. Purpose: To determine risk factors for posterior glenohumeral instability within the physically active population at the United States Military Academy. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: A longitudinal cohort study was performed over a 6-year period from 2006 to 2012 at the United States Military Academy utilizing the Cadet Illness and Injury Tracking System. Exposure data were collected from daily attendance data documented for every practice and game at the intramural, club, or varsity sport level. The primary outcomes calculated were the IRs of posterior glenohumeral joint instability per 1000 person-years at risk and per 1000 athlete-exposures. IR ratios and confidence intervals were calculated between male and female cadets and between intercollegiate and intramural athletes. Results: Between 2006 and 2012, there were 1348 shoulder injuries in total, with 633 instability events. During the study period, 113 posterior shoulder instability injuries (17.9% of instability events) and 26,408 person-years at risk were documented, for an overall IR of 4.28 per 1000 person-years. The overall IR of posterior instability was 0.08 per 1000 athlete exposures. In male athletes, 105 sustained a posterior shoulder instability event, for an IR of 4.67 per 1000 person-years. Female athletes were less likely to sustain a posterior instability event, accounting for only 8 events, for an IR of 2.04 per 1000 person-years. A total of 6670 athletes were at risk for posterior shoulder instability injury during the study period. A total of 55 injuries were documented, for an IR of 8.25 per 1000 person-years. Intercollegiate wrestlers had the highest IR: 34.15 per 1000 person-years. The sport with the highest injury rate among intramural sports was football, at 2.79 per 1000 person-years. Three athletes had a history of a posterior shoulder dislocation, while no significant difference was found for subluxation versus pain as the presenting symptom. Of the 113 posterior shoulder instability injuries, 77.0% required surgical stabilization. All injuries associated with weight lifting required surgical stabilization. Conclusion: Among athletes, intercollegiate athletes are at an increased risk of posterior glenohumeral instability when compared with intramural athletes. Intercollegiate athletes and weight lifters demonstrate a high likelihood of requiring surgical treatment as compared with intramural athletes.

It isn't all just fun and games: Collegiate participation in extracurricular activities and risk for generalized and sexual harassment, psychological distress, and alcohol use

Collegiate extracurricular activities, despite their benefits, may place students at an increased risk for experiencing harassment. This study utilizes multiple waves of data from an online longitudinal survey to examine how participation in college activities (intramural sports, fraternities/sororities, school clubs) relates to experiences of sexual and generalized harassment and outcomes (psychological distress, heavy alcohol use) among undergraduates (N = 1852, 58.6% female, 57.4% White) in the Midwestern United States. Activity participation was related to harassment, but the pattern depended on the activity, harassment type, and sex. Fraternity/sorority involvement was associated with generalized harassment, whereas school club involvement was linked to both generalized and sexual harassment. Female intramural athletes were at an increased risk to experience both harassment types. In addition to direct relations, activity participation was indirectly linked to future psychological distress (depression, anxiety) and heavy alcohol use via harassment. Implications for intervention with this college student population are discussed.

The Prevalence Of Sports-related Concussion In Intramural And Club Athletes At The Collegiate Level

The Prevalence Of Sports-related Concussion In Intramural And Club Athletes At The Collegiate Level

Exploring Relationships between Passion and Attitudes Toward Performance Enhancing Drugs in Canadian Collegiate Sport Contexts

The purpose of this study was to explore relationships between passion and attitudes toward performance enhancing drugs (PEDs). Participants were 587 male and female varsity and coed intramural athletes from four Southern Ontario universities. Athletes completed the passion scale (Vallerand et al., 2003) and the performance enhancement attitudes scale (Petroczi, 2006). Full sample regression analyze revealed that higher scores on obsessive passion items were associated with more permissive attitudes toward PEDs (B =, 26, p < .001), while higher scores on harmonious passion items were associated with less permissive attitudes toward PEDs (B = -.29, p < .001). Moreover, obsessive passion emerged as a significant positive predictor of attitudes toward PEDs in all study contexts (i.e., coed recreational athletes, male/female varsity athletes). Implications for sport administrators, study limitations, and possible avenues for future research are discussed.

Alcohol Use among College Athletes: Do Intercollegiate, Club, or Intramural Student Athletes Drink Differently?

Background: Varsity student athletes are a high-risk drinking group, exhibiting a greater propensity to binge drink than their non-sport peers. Moreover, as intercollegiate athletic involvement increases, so too does alcohol consumption. There is little research, however, which examines drinking behaviors of students who participate in nonvarsity athletics. Objectives: Identify differences in alcohol-related behaviors and associated consequences among U.S. varsity, club, and intramural athletes, and nonathlete college students. Methods: Secondary data analysis of the 2011 National College Health Assessment (n = 29,939). Results: Intramural athletes binge drank more frequently (M = 1.1, SD = 1.7) than club athletes (M = 1.0, SD = 1.6), intercollegiate athletes (M = 0.9, SD = 1.5), and nonathletes (M = 0.6, SD = 1.3) and also experienced greater alcohol-related consequences. Intramural athletes consumed the most during their last drinking episode (M = 4.1, SD = 4.0) and reached the highest blood alcohol concentration (BAC) (M = 0.062, SD = 0.09).Compared to club and varsity athletes [M = 0.8, SD = 1.4; t (8,131) = −9.6, p < .001], intramural-only athletes reported binge drinking significantly more frequently (M = 1.2, SD = 1.7) and also reached significantly higher BACs during most recent drinking episode (M = 0.064, SD = 0.08) than organized sport athletes [M = 0.057, SD = 0.08; t (8,050) = −3.0, p = .003]. Conclusions: Intramural athletes represent a higher-risk drinking group than other athlete and nonathlete college students. Future research should investigate factors contributing to drinking differences among different athlete groups.

Exploring Flow among Ncaa Division I and Intramural Athletes

This study explored the flow experiences of male NCAA Division I athletes ( n = 80) and intramural athletes ( n = 100). Participants completed the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2) (Jackson, 2001) as well as several items pertaining to perceived ability. The intramural athletes reported experiencing the merging of action and awareness ( p &lt; .05), autotelic experience ( p &lt; .05), transformation of time ( p &lt; .05), and having clear goals ( p &lt; .05) more frequently than the NCAA Division I athletes. No group differences were found for perceived ability. Perceived ability was associated with merging of action and awareness ( p &lt; .001) and perceived control ( p &lt; .001). Together, the findings suggest different flow characteristics occur in NCAA Division I athletes as opposed to intramural athletes. Further understanding into the experience of flow and the influence of sport context are provided.

Jump-Landing Differences Between Varsity, Club, and Intramural Athletes

Abnormal movement patterns have been identified as important prospective risk factors for lower extremity injury, including anterior cruciate ligament injury. Specifically, poor neuromuscular control during the early landing phase has been associated with increased injury risk. Although it is commonly assumed that higher division collegiate athletes generally exhibit better movement patterns than lower division athletes, few studies compare the biomechanical differences on basic tasks such as jump landing between various levels of athletic groups. The objective of this study was to evaluate jump-landing and fitness differences among college-aged Intramural, Competitive Club, and National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level athletes. Two hundred seventy-seven student-athletes (222 men, 55 women; age 19.3 ± 0.8 years) categorized as NCAA Division I, Competitive Club, or Intramural level athletes were evaluated during a jump-landing task using the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS), a validated qualitative movement assessment. Fitness was measured using the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT). Results showed no significant differences in landing errors between the levels of athletic group (F(2,267) = 0.36, p = 0.70). There was a significant difference in landing errors between genders (F(1,268) = 3.99, p = 0.05). Significant differences in APFT scores were observed between level of athletic group (F(2,267) = 11.14, p < 0.001) and gender (F(1,268) = 9.27, p = 0.003). There was no significant correlation between the APFT and LESS scores (p = 0.26). In conclusion, higher level athletes had better physical fitness as measured by the APFT but did not as a group exhibit better landing technique. The implications of this research suggest that "high-risk" movement patterns are prevalent in all levels of athletes.

The Epidemiology of Medial Collateral Ligament Sprains in Young Athletes

Background: A medial collateral ligament (MCL) knee sprain is a prevalent injury in athletic populations that may result in significant time lost to injury. Remarkably little is known of the epidemiology of this injury. Purpose: To define the incidence of MCL tears and to determine the demographic and athletic risk factors. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiological study. Methods: A longitudinal cohort study was performed to examine the epidemiology of isolated MCL sprains at the United States Military Academy (USMA) between 2005 and 2009. Charts and radiographic studies were reviewed by an independent orthopaedic surgeon to identify all new isolated MCL sprains resulting in time lost to sport and activity that occurred within the study period. Incidence rates (IRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated per 1000 person-years at risk and by sex, sport, and level of competition. The IR per 1000 athlete-exposures (AEs) was also determined. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and respective 95% CIs were calculated between male and female students, intercollegiate and intramural athletes, and male and female intercollegiate athletes involved in selected sports. Chi-square and Poisson regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between the variables of interest and the incidence of MCL sprains, with statistical significance set at P < .05. Results: A total of 128 cadets sustained isolated MCL injuries during 17,606 student person-years from 2005 to 2009. This resulted in an IR of approximately 7.3 per 1000 person-years. Of the 128 injuries, 114 were in male athletes (89%) and 14 were in female athletes (11%). Male cadets had a 44% higher IR than did female cadets (7.60 vs 5.36, respectively), although this was not significant (P = .212). Of 5820 at-risk intercollegiate athletes, 59 (53 male, 6 female) sustained an isolated MCL sprain during 528,523 (407,475 male, 121,048 female) AEs for an overall IR of 10.14 per 1000 person-years and 0.11 per 1000 AEs. The IRR of MCL sprains of men compared with women involved in intercollegiate athletics was 2.87 (95% CI, 1.24-8.18) per 1000 person-years and 2.62 (95% CI, 1.13-7.47) per 1000 AEs. Of 21,805 at-risk intramural athletes, with quarterly participation, 16 (all male) sustained isolated MCL injuries during 225,683 AEs for an overall IR of 0.07 per 1000 AEs. The IRs of MCL injuries of intercollegiate and intramural athletes did not differ significantly. In intercollegiate sports, wrestling (0.57), judo (0.36), hockey (0.34), and rugby (men’s, 0.22; women’s, 0.23) had the highest IRs per 1000 AEs. When examining men’s intercollegiate athletics, the IRRs of wrestling (13.41; 95% CI, 1.80-595.27) and hockey (8.12; 95% CI, 0.91-384.16) were significantly higher compared with that of lacrosse. Among women’s intercollegiate sports as well as intramural sports, there were no significant differences in IRs. A median of 16 days was lost to injury, with 2407 total days lost for all injuries. Grade 1 MCL injuries lost a median of 13.5 days, while higher grade injuries lost a median of 29 days. Conclusion: Medial collateral ligament injuries are relatively common in athletic cohorts. The most injurious sports are contact sports such as wrestling, hockey, judo, and rugby. Male athletes are at a greater risk than female athletes. Intercollegiate athletes are at a greater risk than intramural athletes. The average amount of time lost per injury was 23.2 days, with greater time lost with higher grade sprains than grade 1 sprains.

The Culture of High-Risk Alcohol Use Among Club and Intramural Athletes

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the drinking patterns of club and intramural college athletes and compare their alcohol consumption, perceived norms around the excessive use of alcohol, experience of negative consequences, and employment of protective strategies with those of campus varsity athletes. Participants: A total of 442 undergraduate students attending a private, suburban institution in the Northeast participated in the American College Health Association National College Health Assessment-II Web survey in spring 2011. Thirty-five students identified themselves as varsity athletes, 76 identified as club sport athletes, and 196 students identified themselves as intramural athletes. Methods: Survey responses were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. The Pearson's correlation coefficient and test for independence were applied to identify significant relationships between athlete status and identified variables related to alcohol use. Results: Results indicated that there were significant correlations between athlete status and all variables, to varying degrees. Conclusions: These findings have implications for campus health promotion professionals and athletics program coordinators seeking to address high-risk alcohol use among college athletes.

Epidemiology of Acromioclavicular Joint Injury in Young Athletes

Background: Acromioclavicular (AC) joint injuries, particularly sprains, are common in athletic populations and may result in significant time lost to injury. However, surprisingly, little is known of the epidemiology of this injury. Purpose: To define the incidence of AC joint injuries and to determine the risk factors for injury. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiological study. Methods: A longitudinal cohort study was performed to determine the incidence and characteristics of AC joint injury at the United States Military Academy between 2005 and 2009. All suspected AC joint injuries were reviewed by an independent orthopaedic surgeon using both chart reviews as well as assessments of radiological imaging studies. Injuries were graded according to the modified Rockwood classification system as well as dichotomized into low-grade (Rockwood types I and II) and high-grade (Rockwood types III, IV, V, and VI) injuries for analysis. Injury mechanisms, return-to-play timing, and athlete-exposures were documented and analyzed. χ2 and Poisson regression analyses were performed, with statistical significance set at P < .05. Results: During the study period, 162 new AC joint injuries and 17,606 person-years at risk were documented, for an overall incidence rate of 9.2 per 1000 person-years. The majority of the AC joint injuries were low-grade (145 sprains, 89%) injuries, with 17 high-grade injuries. Overall, male patients experienced a significantly higher incidence rate for AC joint injuries than female patients (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 2.18; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.21-4.31). An AC joint injury occurred most commonly during athletics (91%). The incidence rate of AC joint injury was significantly higher in intercollegiate athletes than intramural athletics when using athlete-exposure as a measure of person-time at risk (IRR, 2.11; 95% CI, 1.31-3.56). Similarly, the incidence rate of AC injury was significantly higher among male intercollegiate athletes when compared to female athletes (IRR, 3.56; 95% CI, 1.74-8.49) when using athlete-exposure as the denominator. The intercollegiate sports of men’s rugby, wrestling, and hockey had the highest incidence rate of AC joint injury. Acromioclavicular injuries resulted in at least 1359 total days lost to injury and an average of 18.4 days lost per athlete. The average time lost to injury for low-grade sprains was 10.4 days compared with high-grade injuries at 63.7 days. Of the patients with high-grade injuries, 71% elected to undergo coracoclavicular/AC reconstructions. The rate of surgical intervention was 19 times higher for high-grade AC joint injuries than for low-grade injuries (IRR, 19.2; 95% CI, 7.64-48.23; P < .0001). Conclusion: Acromioclavicular separations are relatively common in young athletes. Most injuries occur during contact sports such as rugby, wrestling, and hockey. Male athletes are at greater risk than female athletes. Intercollegiate athletes are at greater risk than intramural athletes. The average time lost to sport due to AC joint injury was 18 days, with low-grade injuries averaging 10 days lost. High-grade injuries averaged 64 days lost to sport, and 71% elected to undergo surgical repair/reconstruction.

The Effects of a Sportsmanship Education Program on the Behavior of College Intramural Sports Participants

The study's purpose was to examine the potential impact of a sportsmanship education program on behaviors of students who participated in collegiate intramural sports. In an effort to decrease unsportsmanlike incidents and as a mandatory component for participation in the university's intramural sports program, all intramural athletes were required to complete a sportsmanship education program. Data were collected from intramural sports program incident reports over two academic years. Descriptive statistics indicated the total number of unsportsmanlike behaviors decreased over the two academic periods. However, an independent t test revealed no significant differences existed in the perceived severity of unsportsmanlike incidents during this time. Although the study yielded non-significant findings, further research should continue in the area of sportsmanship among collegiate intramural programs. Specifically, research design should be prioritized in an effort to gather more revealing data. Ultimately, such information can be used to implement systems that focus on curbing unsportsmanlike behaviors.

Collegiate Athletes' Perceptions of the Legitimacy of Aggression in Sport

The purpose of the current study was to examine the perception of legitimacy of aggressive acts by male and female contact, noncontact, collision, and intramural athletes at the collegiate level. It was hypothesized that males would perceive aggressive acts as more legitimate than female athletes and collision and contact athletes would perceive aggressive acts as more legitimate than noncontact and intramural athletes. Collegiate varsity and intramural athletes (<i>N</i> = 237) completed a demographic questionnaire and a modified version of the Sport Behavior Inventory (Conroy, Silva, Newcomer, Walker, & Johnson, 2001), which evaluated the perception of legitimacy of aggressive acts. Results revealed that male athletes perceived aggressive acts as more legitimate than female athletes. Additionally, collision sport athletes and noncontact sport athletes perceived aggressive acts as more legitimate than contact sport athletes. No interaction was found between gender and sport type. This research assists in understanding the connection between sport socialization and perceived legitimacy of aggressive acts in sport.

Caffeinated Cocktails: Energy Drink Consumption, High‐risk Drinking, and Alcohol‐related Consequences among College Students

The consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) is popular on college campuses in the United States. Limited research suggests that energy drink consumption lessens subjective intoxication in persons who also have consumed alcohol. This study examines the relationship between energy drink use, high-risk drinking behavior, and alcohol-related consequences. In Fall 2006, a Web-based survey was conducted in a stratified random sample of 4,271 college students from 10 universities in North Carolina. A total of 697 students (24% of past 30-day drinkers) reported consuming AmED in the past 30 days. Students who were male, white, intramural athletes, fraternity or sorority members or pledges, and younger were significantly more likely to consume AmED. In multivariable analyses, consumption of AmED was associated with increased heavy episodic drinking (6.4 days vs. 3.4 days on average; p < 0.001) and twice as many episodes of weekly drunkenness (1.4 days/week vs. 0.73 days/week; p < 0.001). Students who reported consuming AmED had significantly higher prevalence of alcohol-related consequences, including being taken advantage of sexually, taking advantage of another sexually, riding with an intoxicated driver, being physically hurt or injured, and requiring medical treatment (p < 0.05). The effect of consuming AmED on driving while intoxicated depended on a student's reported typical alcohol consumption (interaction p = 0.027). Almost one-quarter of college student current drinkers reported mixing alcohol with energy drinks. These students are at increased risk for alcohol-related consequences, even after adjusting for the amount of alcohol consumed. Further research is necessary to understand this association and to develop targeted interventions to reduce risk.

Are Drinking Games Sports? College Athlete Participation in Drinking Games and Alcohol-Related Problems

Studies indicate greater heavy episodic drinking and related consequences for college student-athletes compared with nonathletes. Surprisingly, little research has examined college athletes' participation in drinking games, a context associated with excessive alcohol consumption and negative alcohol-related consequences in college students. We examined how drinking game participation contributes to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences among college-level intramural and intercollegiate athletes compared with nonathletes in two independent samples. Study 1 consisted of 1,395 randomly selected students (61% women) at a West Coast college campus, including 335 students who reported intramural athletic participation. Study 2 consisted of 6,055 randomly selected college students (63% women) from three college campuses, including 1,439 intramural athletes and 317 intercollegiate athletes. Results of Study 1 indicated that intramural athletes consumed significantly more drinks per week, had significantly higher typical and peak blood alcohol concentration levels, and reported more negative consequences than nonathletes. Drinking game participation mediated the relationship between intramural athlete status and measures of consumption and consequences. Results of Study 2, including both intramural and intercollegiate athletes, were consistent with those of Study 1, revealing drinking game participation as a mediator of the relationships between athlete status and alcohol consumption and consequences. Drinking games represent contexts for college athletes to engage in heavy episodic drinking, and participation in drinking games mediates the relationship between alcohol consumption and negative consequences in athletes. Interventions targeted at college athletes should consider the impact of drinking game participation.