Intraracial Differences Research Articles

Are There Regional Differences in Mental Health among Black Americans? An Exploration of Explanatory Mechanisms.

Using data from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) (2001-2003), we examine regional differences in past-year anxiety disorder and past-year major depressive episodes among a geographically diverse sample of Black Americans (N = 3,672). We find that Black Americans residing in the South experience a mental health advantage over Black Americans living in other parts of the country, experiencing lower rates of both anxiety disorder and past-year major depression. We also examine the extent to which stress exposure, religious involvement, and neighborhood contexts help explain any regional differences. We find that stress exposure helps to explain much of the differences observed across regions, while religious involvement and neighborhood contexts help explain observed regional differences to a lesser extent. These findings highlight the importance of considering regional contexts in understanding intra-racial differences in mental health.

Abstract P3-05-60: Understanding Ethnoracial Differences in Oncotype DX Recurrence Scores in Patients with Early-Stage Breast Cancer: An Analysis Based on Hispanic Ethnicity

Abstract Background: Recent studies suggest racial and ethnic differences in tumor genomics and receipt of systemic treatment may be drivers of racial and ethnic disparities in clinical outcomes (e.g., mortality, recurrence) in patients with breast cancer (BC). For patients of Hispanic ethnicity, the relationship between ethnoracial categories (i.e., Hispanic Black, Hispanic White), tumor genomics, and receipt of systemic has not been well elucidated. The objective of this study is to examine implications of ethnoracial categories on Oncotype DX recurrence score (RS), receipt of chemotherapy for high risk RS and endocrine therapy (ET) use in the National Cancer Database (NCDB). Materials/Methods: Patients diagnosed from 2004-2017 with stage I or stage II HR+/HER2- BC with RS available in the NCDB were identified. The data was divided into Black and White patients then stratified by ethnicity. Study ethnoracial categories included non-Hispanic White (NHW), Hispanic White (HW), non-Hispanic Black (NHB) and Hispanic Black (HB). High-risk RS was defined using the original definition of RS>30. On univariable analysis, intra-racial differences in RS score (t-test) and the proportion of patients with high-risk RS (chi-square test) were examined by ethnicity. Systemic therapy (chemotherapy and ET) were assessed with univariable analysis within racial groups by ethnicity (chi-square test). Results: The ethnoracial composition of the cohort was 220,490 (87.5%) NHW, 20,690 (8.2%) HB, 10,477(4.2%) HW and 296 (< 1%) HB. Overall, Hispanic patients had higher mean RS relative to non-Hispanic patients (18.4 [11.8] vs. 18.0 [10.8], p=0.0004) and a higher proportion of RS>30 (10.4% vs. 9.6%, p=0.0028). Amongst White patients, Hispanic ethnicity was associated with higher mean RS (18.3 [11.7] HW vs. 17.8 [10.6] NHW) and higher rate of RS>30 (10.4% HW vs. 9.1% NHW, p< 0.0001). There was no significant difference in mean RS between NHB and HB patients (19.0 [13.5] HB vs. 20.0 [12.7], p=0.1855) but there was a trend towards a lower proportion of RS>30 in HB patients (10.8% HB vs. 14.6% NHB, p=0.0688. In patients with RS>30, the proportion that received chemotherapy was similar based on ethnicity within White (80.7% HW vs. 82.3% NHW, p=0.1843) and Black (78.1% HB vs. 81.2% NHB, p=0.6601) patients. ET use was slightly lower in HW vs. NHW patients (90.6% vs. 91.7%, p< 0.0001). There was no significant difference in ET use in NHB vs HB patients (89.9% vs. 89.9%, p=0.9651). Conclusions: In our examination of the early-stage breast cancer patients in the NCDB, Hispanic ethnicity was associated with higher RS amongst White patients with an opposite trend in Black women. Systemic therapy use was largely similar across ethnoracial categories. Future, studies should disaggregate Hispanic ethnicity by race to better understand tumor characteristics and clinical outcomes in this population. Citation Format: Jose G. Bazan, Sachin R. Jhawar, Daniel Stover, Sasha Beyer, Julia White, Samilia Obeng-Gyasi. Understanding Ethnoracial Differences in Oncotype DX Recurrence Scores in Patients with Early-Stage Breast Cancer: An Analysis Based on Hispanic Ethnicity [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2022 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2022 Dec 6-10; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(5 Suppl):Abstract nr P3-05-60.

Retracted: Period Analysis of Intraracial Differences in Incidence and Survival Rates in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer

Retracted: Period Analysis of Intraracial Differences in Incidence and Survival Rates in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer

Black and non-black population: investigation of the difference in butyrylcholinesterase activity in a healthy population in Salvador, Bahia.

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), an important biomarker of exposure to anticholinesterases, varies its activity according to the intensity and duration of exposure to these agents. Their normal values may vary in different populations. It is important to determine the reference values for the local population, mostly black/brown. The objective was to investigate the baseline values of BChE activity in a sample of the Salvador city population (Bahia, Brazil), evaluating the sociodemographic characteristics. A descriptive, quantitative study with a cross-sectional approach was carried out in 304 voluntary and healthy blood donors. BChE activity was determined using the integrated chemical system Dimension RxLMax and analyses of sociodemographic characteristics were performed. For the 304 participants (18 to 67years old), BChE activity values range were 7.4 to 19.8 U/mL (male) and 6.0 to 19.6 U/mL (female), without significant inter-racial differences (p = 0.986; Mann-Whitney). The participates were predominantly black (44.7%) and brown (40.5%), with higher levels of BchE activity in males (64.8%) (p-value = 0.01) than females (35.2%). There was no relationship between alcohol use and lower BChE activity (p = 0.725, Mann-Whitney). Women using hormonal contraceptives had a median activity 9.2% lower than the non-users. Despite the high miscegenation and predominance of the black race in Salvador, contrary to what was expected, the sample did not show statistically significant intra-racial differences in BChE activity, being able to use the same reference values currently used, observing factors such as sex, use of contraceptives, and drinking alcohol.

Higher Seroprevalence of Anti-Adeno-Associated Viral Vector Neutralizing Antibodies Among Racial Minorities in the United States.

Anti-adeno-associated viral vector (AAV) neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) can ablate efficacy of transgene expression following intravenous vector administration. This observation in both preclinical and clinical trials has led to exclusion of NAb-positive patients from receiving AAV gene therapy. AAV drug development includes selection of capsids with lower NAb seroprevalence that also possess other favorable traits. Often a limited number of healthy volunteers are screened to gauge NAb seroprevalence. However, limited data sets can be biased leading to inaccurate estimates of NAb incidence. In this study, we evaluated AAV NAbs against a panel of vectors among healthy donors within the United States. While the overall seroprevalence against most AAVs was lower, we did observe increased NAb incidence among black and Hispanic donors. These findings of increased NAb seroprevalence among the minority races were confirmed in a second set of donors who also demonstrated higher seroprevalence among these races. Interracial- and intraracial differences within genders were also observed among donors. The increased incidence of AAV NAb among racial minorities was unexpected. Our findings underscore the need for removing bias in sample data sets and evaluating seroprevalence within the patient population while selecting capsids.

Inter- and Intra-racial Differences in Pain and Performance-Based Function in Older Adults With Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) contributes to movement-evoked pain, impaired function and mobility, and reduced quality of life among older adults. Assessment of pain has not traditionally considered the dynamic changes that occur with gross motor movement, and thus self-reports of pain often reflect static or resting pain. This case-control pilot study examined inter- and intra-racial differences in movement-evoked pain and performance-based function in older adults (N= 28) with knee OA. Cases consisted of Blacks and Whites with OA; controls included Blacks without OA. The Biodex Pro System 4, an isokinetic and isometric dynamometer commonly used in rehabilitative medicine, measured knee muscle function. Pain intensity was assessed pre-, ante-, and post- completion of 2 repetition sets of five alternating knee flexion and extension maximum voluntary contractions at angular velocities of 90° (greater resistance) and 180° (lower resistance). Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance with Bonferroni correction identified statistically significant differences in pain for within- and between-subjects at 90° and 180°. Pain increased during the repetitions and decreased after completion of both repetition sets; this non-linear relationship was significant (p= .004). One-way ANOVA demonstrated peak torque (extension), a muscle’s maximum strength capability, was significantly higher in White cases and Blacks controls compared to Blacks cases. Novel findings revealed that baseline pain is much higher and functional performance is significantly lower in Blacks with OA compared to White cases and Black controls. This research advances precision pain measurement and our understanding of the biological mechanisms uniquely involved in the experience of knee OA and mobility.

Period Analysis of Intraracial Differences in Incidence and Survival Rates in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

Background To explain the difference in the incidence and relative survival in a population-based cohort of women with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) postdiagnosis in the last forty years. EOC is the most common type of all ovarian cancers, but there is inadequate information about the variations related to long-term EOC survival. Methods We acquired the incidence and relative survival rate data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) registries to analyze the epidemiological variations from 1974 to 2013 in EOC-affected individuals. The survival disparities in EOC-specific individuals due to age, race, and socioeconomic status (SES) were performed by Kaplan-Meier analysis. The Results. The overall incidence of EOC progressively declined to 9.0 per 100,000 from 11.4 in the last forty years. The median survival rate improved to 48 months in the first decade from a previous of 27 months in the fourth decade. The 5-year relative survival rate (RSR) increased to 44.3% that was previously 32.3% at the same time. However, between whites and blacks, an increase from 11 to 18 months was observed in the median survival differences. Between the low and high poverty groups, it was increased from 7 months to 12 months, respectively. Conclusions The incidence rate of RSR and EOC-specific individuals in the last forty years was improved. However, the survival rates among different races and SES differed over time.

The role of normal nasal morphological variations from race and gender differences on respiratory physiology

This study identifies anatomical and airflow-induced relationships based on nasal morphological variations due to inter- and intra-racial differences and gender. Subject-specific nasal airway reconstruction was created from computed tomography images in 16 subjects: 4 subjects from each ethnic group (Black, East Asian, Caucasian, and Latino) comprising of 2 males and 2 females. Volume, surface area and nasal index were calculated, as well as airflow rate and nasal resistance after computational fluid dynamics simulations in the nasal airway. Results showed that nasal airspace surface area (p = 0.0499) and volume (p = 0.0281) were significantly greater in males than in females. Nasal volume was greatest in East Asians (Median = 20.38cm3, Interquartile Range [IQR] = 4.58 cm3), Latinos had the greatest surface area (Median = 219.70cm2, IQR = 29.56cm2). On average, East Asian and Black females had larger nasal index than their male counterparts. Caucasians had the highest median nasal resistance (0.050 Pa.s/mL, IQR = 0.025 Pa.s/mL). Results indicate that there exist anatomical variabilities based on race and gender. However, these variabilities may not significantly influence nasal function.

Endometrial Cancer Type 2 Incidence and Survival Disparities Within Subsets of the US Black Population.

IntroductionEndometrial cancer type 2 (EC2) carries a worse prognosis compared to EC type 1. EC2 disproportionately affects Black women among whom incidence is higher and survival is poorer compared to Whites. Here we assessed EC2 incidence and survival patterns among US Black ethnic groups: US-born Blacks (UBB), Caribbean-born Blacks (CBB), and Black Hispanics (BH).MethodsWe analyzed population-based data (n=24,387) for the entire states of Florida and New York (2005–2016). Hysterectomy-corrected EC2 incidence rates were computed by racial-ethnic group, and survival disparities were examined using Cox regression adjusting for tumor characteristics, poverty level, and insurance status.ResultsEC2 incidence rates were highest among UBB (24.4 per 100,000), followed by CBB (18.2), Whites (11.1), and Hispanics of all races (10.1). Compared to Whites, the age-adjusted cause-specific survival was worse for non-Hispanic Blacks (aHR: 1.61; 95%CI 1.52–1.71) and Hispanics of all races (aHR:1.09; 95% CI:1.01–1.18). In relation to Whites, survival was worse for non-Hispanic Blacks: UBB (aHR:1.62; 95%CI 1.52–1.74) and CBB (aHR:1.59; 95% CI:1.44–1.76) than for BH (aHR:1.30; 95% CI:1.05–1.61). Surgical resection was associated with a lower risk of death, while carcinosarcoma subtype and advanced stage at diagnosis were associated with a greater risk.ConclusionsAlthough higher EC2 incidence and lower survival are observed among all African-descent groups, there are significant intra-racial differences among UBB, CBB, and BH. This heterogeneity in EC2 patterns among Black populations suggests an interplay between genetic and socioenvironmental factors.

Context Matters: Differential Effects of Discrimination by Environmental Context on Depressive Symptoms Among College Students of Color

Experiences with more subtle racism – which have been called microaggressions – have a host of negative effects on health, mental health, educational performance, and general well-being on people of color. In this study we draw on a longitudinal dataset of Black, Latinx, and Asian students in higher education and use the microaggression framework to distinguish between the types of reported subtle experiences with discrimination, including (1) classroom-based, or perceived discrimination or discomfort in the classroom; (2) microassaults, or verbal assaults; (3) discomfort, or perceived discomfort on campus because of race, (4) criminality, which refers to both being stopped by University police and (5) refusal to acknowledge intra-racial differences, which here describes experiences with intraracial microaggressions. Our findings explore (1) the differential effects of different types of microaggressions on symptoms of depression (2) intergroup differences in effects of microaggressions on depression and (3) the differential effects of different types of microaggressions over time.

Abstract PS7-10: Hormone receptor positive breast cancers and Black race: Does gender matter?

Abstract Introduction: Male breast cancer (MBC) patients present with later disease stages and have higher mortality rates than female breast cancer (FBC) patients. Additionally, black breast cancer patients, regardless of gender, consistently have worse clinical outcomes than their white counterparts. To date, there are few studies exclusively comparing clinical outcomes between black MBC and black FBC patients. The objective of this study is to understand the differences in presentation, treatment and mortality between black MBC and black FBC patients with hormone receptor positive breast cancer using the National Cancer Database (NCDB). Methods: The NCDB was queried for all black MBC and FBC patients, ages 18-90, with hormone receptor positive breast cancer diagnosed between 2010-2016. Hormone receptor positivity was defined as estrogen receptor positive, progesterone positive and HER 2-negative cancer. Sociodemographic and clinical variables were compared between MBC and FBC patients on univariate analysis. For stages I-III patients, a propensity score (PS) was generated by a logistic regression model including the following covariates: age at diagnosis, tumor size, nodes removed, node positivity, resection margin status, hormonal treatment, chemotherapy treatment, and radiation treatment. MBC patients were matched to FBC patients using PS 2:1 nearest-neighbor matching. A log rank test was used to determine differences in survival between the matched cohort. Results: There were 994 black MBC and 65,931 black FBC patients that met study criteria. MBC patients were older at diagnosis than women (age, MBC 63 ± 12.5, FBC 60.6± 13.3). Compared to FBC patients, more MBC patients had lower oncotype scores (RS 0-10, MBC 39.7%, FBC 24%, p<0.001). Additionally, MBC patients were more likely to present with metastatic disease (stage 4, MBC 4.4%, FBC 2.6%, p<0.001), had fewer smaller tumors (tumor size <2cm, MBC 32.1, FBC 49.1%, p<0.001) and a higher percentage of poorly differentiated tumors (grade 3, MBC 28.5%, FBC 21.4%, p<0.001). Notably, MBC patients had lower rates of hormone therapy (MBC 66.4%, FBC 80.7%, p<0.001) and neoadjuvant chemotherapy (MBC 5.8%, FBC 7.5%, p=0.05) utilization than their female counterparts. On propensity score matched analysis black MBC patients had a higher overall mortality compared to FBC patients (p=0.026). Conclusion: Hormone receptor positive black MBC patients in the NCDB present with more advanced stages of disease, are less likely to receive endocrine therapy and have worse overall mortality compared to their black FBC counterparts. These results indicate that significant gender-based disparities exist in presentation, treatment and mortality among black breast cancer patients. Future studies should evaluate how biologic sex and tumor biology intersect to affect these intra-racial differences in clinical outcomes. Citation Format: Mariam Eskander, Yaming Li, Bridget Oppong, Oindrila Bhattacharyya, Allan Tsung, Samilia Obeng-Gyasi. Hormone receptor positive breast cancers and Black race: Does gender matter? [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2020 San Antonio Breast Cancer Virtual Symposium; 2020 Dec 8-11; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(4 Suppl):Abstract nr PS7-10.

A Preliminary Measurement and Understanding of Movement-Evoked Pain in African American Elder Adults

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a principal cause of disabling knee pain, and movement is a known exacerbator of pain in African Americans (AAs). Still, research has neglected to understand the relationship between pain with movement and its impact on function and mobility. Our previous study found significantly higher movement-evoked pain between AAs and White American (WAs). Therefore, this case-control observational study investigated inter-racial and intra-racial differences in movement-evoked pain in AAs and WAs (N= 28) who were 55-78 years-of-age (M= 65.75, SD= 6.23). We measured pain intensity (0-10) pre/ante/post multiple performance-based functional activities; we report preliminary results for 7-meter GAITRite® walk and Stair climbs. Pain intensity was higher before and after the 7-meter walk and stair climbs in AAs, although not significantly different than WAs. We will conduct additional statistical tests for the remaining functional activities to identify potential differences and ethnic-specific factors that distinguish movement-evoked pain and function by race.

New Evidence on the Biobehavioral Mechanisms of Chronic Pain in Aging African Americans

African American older adults are living longer with chronic pain, which presents a huge personal and societal burden. A growing group of scholars are now devoted to accurately and precisely characterizing and phenotyping the experience of pain in aging using within-group and advanced methodological designs to elucidate the biopsychosocial-behavioral responses to pain. In this symposium, five dynamic presenters present new evidence on mechanisms of pain in older African-Americans. Dr. Roach’s investigation reveals the effect of genetic alterations of sickle cell disease (SCD) on stress-related pain in younger and older adults; this scientific inquiry is especially important because there is little research on SCD in aging. Next, Dr. Terry, extends these findings by exploring the association between psychosocial factors such as experiences of discrimination, pain catastrophizing, and perceived stress on neural (brain) responses via magnetic resonance imaging. From a clinical perspective, Dr. Booker reports on the first-ever model of intra-racial differences in movement-evoked pain in older African-Americans with knee osteoarthritis and healthy controls. Our final two presenters use a translational approach to identify how older African-Americans cope with chronic pain. Dr. Robinson-Lane’s study highlights the unique experience and predictors of coping, adaptation, and self-management of chronic pain in Black dementia caregivers. Finally, Dr. Cobb’s research from a large cross-sectional study correlates social, behavioral, and health factors with opioid and psychotropic use in economically disadvantaged older African-Americans. This symposium offers novel ways of understanding social determinants of pain and assisting African-Americans and their caregivers to manage complex chronic pain in later life.

Skin in the Game: Colorism and the Subtle Operation of Stereotypes in Men’s College Basketball

Colorism research often suffers from endogeneity issues related to human capital outcomes and researchers’ inability to compare the effects of skin tone to those of racial classification. Furthermore, colorism research focuses on intraracial differences in skin tone inequality while insufficiently considering skin tone inequality across racial groups. Using data from video broadcasts of the National Collegiate Athletic Association’s annual, single-elimination Men’s Division I Basketball Tournament for the years 2000–2010, we quantitatively examine comments made by announcers about the performance, physical characteristics, and mental characteristics of players across various skin tones. Controlling for objective measures of performance, we find that announcers are more likely to discuss the performance and mental abilities of lighter-skinned players and the physical characteristics of darker-skinned players. We argue that, although the two concepts are related, skin tone is not simply a proxy for racial classification. Rather, skin tone inequality transcends traditional racial boundaries.

Intraracial Diversity of the Carpathian Race of Honeybees Apis mellifera carpatica

Intraracial differences in the Carpathian honeybee race Apis mellifera carpatica from Russia and Tajikistan with the race standard (Vuchkovski line from Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine) are compared by morphometric and molecular-genetic study. The most informative features, the “cubital index” and the “discal displacement,” are shown to deviate significantly from the standard. However, the calculated genetic distance between datasets from different regions indicates the uniformity of the Carpathian race across its distribution range. The nucleotide composition of the mtDNA COI gene (1535 bp) reveals two groups of haplotypes associated with the apiary foundation time and differing by the amino acid composition of the COI protein (group I, asparagine; group II, serine). In addition to honeybee samples from different regions, group I includes honeybees from an isolated apiary in the mountain-forest zone of Crimea, which originated from the honeybee line 77 from the Transcarpathian. Group II includes honeybee samples of the modern “Vuchkovski” standard line.

Abstract P426: Association Between Neighborhood Characteristics, Personal Resilience, and Arterial Stiffness Among Blacks: Results From the Morehouse-Emory Cardiovascular (MECA) Center for Health Equity

Introduction: Arterial stiffness is associated with cardiovascular (CV) risk factors and adverse cardiovascular events. While inter-racial differences in arterial stiffness have been reported, factors contributing to intra-racial differences within Blacks are less known. We examined whether neighborhood characteristics and personal resilience factors were associated with arterial stiffness among Blacks. Hypothesis: More desirable neighborhood characteristics and greater personal resilience are associated with reduced arterial stiffness. Methods: We examined 385 Black adults (age 53 ± 10, 40% male) without known CV disease living in Atlanta, GA. Arterial stiffness was measured as augmentation index (AIX) and pulse wave velocity (PWV) using applanation tonometry (Sphygmocor Inc). Perceived residential neighborhood characteristics in 7 domains: aesthetic quality, walking environment, safety, food access, social cohesion, activity with neighbors, and violence were determined. Personal resilience was also assessed using standard questionnaires on experience of discrimination, environmental mastery, purpose in life, optimism, resilient coping, and depressive symptoms. Multiple linear regression models were used to examine the differences of arterial stiffness between the highest and the lowest tertiles of neighborhood characteristics and personal resilience factors after adjustment for age, gender, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, household income, education, marital status, and employment status. Results: Higher composite scores of neighborhood characteristics were associated with lower AIX (β=-3.42, 95% CI [-6.42 to -0.41], P=0.026; highest vs lowest tertiles). Specifically, higher scores of safety (β=-4.26, 95% CI [-7.34 to -1.17], P=0.007) and social cohesion (β=-4.62 [-7.64 to -1.61], P=0.003) were associated with lower AIX (highest vs lowest tertiles for both). For factors of personal resilience, higher scores in purpose in life (β=-4.89 [-7.88 to -1.90], P=0.001) and resilient coping (β=-3.26 [-6.36 to -0.15], P=0.040) were significantly associated with lower AIX (highest vs lowest tertiles for both). There were no significant associations between PWV and scores of neighborhood characteristics or personal resilience factors. Conclusion: In a study examining the impact of neighborhood and markers of resilience on arterial stiffness in an exclusively Black cohort, we found that better neighborhood characteristics and personal resilience factors were associated with lower pulse wave reflections (AIX).

A DREAM DEFERRED?

AbstractThe goal of this paper is to determine whether a privileged class position operates similarly in shaping Blacks’ and Whites’ beliefs about the causes of racial inequality. Existing studies have established that socioeconomic variation drives intraracial differences in commitments to individualistic and structural attributions. However, scholars have yet to determine whether Blacks and Whites positioned at some of the highest levels of the American class structure report corresponding beliefs about the roots of racial disparities. Pooled data from the 1985–2012 General Social Surveys indicate that class-based attitudinal differences are more prevalent and pronounced among Whites rather than Blacks. However, a privileged class position often operates similarly in shaping commitments to select structural attributions. The implications of the findings are discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered.

The Shade of a Criminal Record

Recent high-profile research suggests that social indicators like incarceration influence racial categorization. Yet, this research has largely ignored colorism—intraracial differences in skin tone that matter for stratification outcomes. In two experiments, we address how skin tone interacts with criminal background to produce external racial classification and skin tone attributions. We find no evidence that criminal history affects external racial classification or skin tone attribution. However, we find that skin tone is a strong and consistent predictor of external racial classification and skin tone attribution.

Intra-racial disparities: The effect of poverty and obesity on the psychosocial profile of Mexican-American children

Abstract Introduction. The high prevalence of obesity among children of Mexican descent, living in either Mexico or the United States (US), might indicate they are at a higher risk when compared to other groups. Previous mental health studies have had conflicting outcomes, which may be the result of considering these children as a homogeneous group (by race or ethnicity) instead of considering intra-racial group disparities (e.g. socio-economic status, adversities). Objective: To compare the psychosocial profile by weight category (normal weight, overweight, or obese) of impoverished Mexican descendent children in a clinical setting. Objective. To compare the psychosocial profile by weight category (normal weight, overweight, or obese) of impoverished Mexican descendent children in a clinical setting. Method. The study design was cross sectional. Information was retrieved from medical records (N = 2237) that were obtained from five university-based clinics in a large metropolitan area on the US-Mexico border from May 2009 to August 2010. Results. Psychosocial and behavioral problems were present among this intra-racial group of Mexican-American children, with higher scores in the overweight and obese children than in the normal-weight children. Discussion and conclusion. Intra-racial differences among obese and overweight children could account for variation in results regarding the mental health of Mexican American children. Considering intra-racial group disparities when providing healthcare may improve delivery and promote better mental and health outcomes because some groups may need more attention than others. In addition, considering these groups when designing studies, may improve the accuracy and precision of study result interpretations.

Skin Color and the Criminal Justice System: Beyond Black‐White Disparities in Sentencing

This article analyzes sentencing outcomes for black and white men in Georgia. The analysis uses sentencing data collected by the Georgia Department of Corrections (GDC). Among first‐time offenders, both the race‐only models and race and skin color models estimate that, on average, blacks receive sentences that are 4.25 percent higher than those of whites even after controlling for legally‐relevant factors such as the type of crime. However, the skin color model also shows us that this figure hides important intraracial differences in sentence length: while medium‐ and dark‐skinned blacks receive sentences that are about 4.8 percent higher than those of whites, lighter‐skinned blacks receive sentences that are not statistically significantly different from those of whites. After controlling for socioeconomic status in the race‐only and race and skin color models the remaining difference between whites and dark‐ and medium‐skinned blacks increases slightly, to 5.5 percent. These findings are discussed with respect to the implications for public policy and for racial hierarchy in the United States.