Intra-gender Differences Research Articles

Maintaining the gap: women’s early career experiences of entry into the UK graduate labour market

ABSTRACT Gender inequality in the workplace remains a persistent issue that impacts upon women from their first point of entry into the labour market. In this paper, we explore the experiences, of 20 women in the UK as they take their initial steps onto the career ladder upon graduation. Adopting an interpretive methodology that uses a Bourdieusian framework based on habitus, capital, and field, we highlight that women continue to face structural and individual barriers that influence, and in many cases limit, available career opportunities. By intersecting gender with social class and ethnicity, intra-gender differences are identified that demonstrate the deep-seated nature of disadvantage faced by working class and ethnic minority female graduates in securing employment in comparison to their white, middle-class peers. We conclude by recommending that careers support and guidance should be introduced earlier in the education system to raise aspirations and challenge the perpetuation of gender inequality.

Biomonitoring of parabens in wild boars through hair samples analysis.

Parabens are compounds widely utilized in the industry as preservative additives to personal care products, cosmetics and food. They pollute the environment and penetrate to the living organisms through the digestive tract, respiratory system and skin. Till now the knowledge about exposure of terrestrial wild mammals to parabens is extremely scarce. Therefore, this study for the first time assessed the concentration levels of five parabens commonly used in industry (methylparaben-MeP, ethylparaben-EtP propylparaben-PrP, benzylparaben -BeP and butylparaben-BuP). Substances have been analyzed in hair samples collected from wild boars using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method. The hair is a matrix, which allows to study long-term exposure of organisms to parabens. During this study MeP was noted in 96.3% of samples with mean 88.3±72.9 pg/mg, PrP in 87.0% of samples with mean 8.5±3.3 pg/mg, BeP in 44.4% of samples with mean 17.2±12.3 pg/mg and EtP in 11.1% of samples with mean 17.2±4.8 pg/mg. In turn BuP was noted only in 3.7% of samples with concentration levels below limit of quantification (2.6 pg/mg). Statistically significant intragender differences in parabens levels have not been noted. Only BeP concentration levels depended on industrialization and density of human population of area, where the animals lived. This study indicates that wild boars are exposed to parabens, especially to MeP and PrP, and analysis of the hair seems to be a useful tool of biomonitoring of parabens in wild mammals.

Трансформация гендерной культуры современного общества: интерсекциональный подход

In modern gender studies the rejection of the concept of binary gender oppositions in favor of studying intra-gender differences is becoming more obvious. The relevance of the stated topic is related to the need for modern humanitarian knowledge in a better analysis of gender cultural transformations in the modern society and in the more detailed study of its main components. The aim of the study is to systematize the present ideas about the intra-gender hierarchy within the intersectional and fragmentary approaches, as well as to analyze the specifics of public perception of gender variations cultural interpretation based on the empirical research conducted by the authors. Based on the obtained results, the authors interpret the gender culture of society from the point of view of its basic components, formulate and update the main conceptual issues regarding the value content of modern gender culture. According to the results of the study, it is concluded that the primary relevance of further study within the intersectional approach is the reproductive component of gender culture as one of gender inequality feature.

A Study of the Differences among EFL/ESL Methods for Reading Comprehension and Language Awareness

The present paper reports on the effectiveness of the Grammar-Translation Method, Communicative Language Teaching and Content and Language Integrated Learning upon reading comprehension and language awareness. The study recruited a convenience sample of 164 Spanish students from a rural area in southern Spain who randomly received these three ESL/EFL methods. The research was focused on two hypotheses. Firstly, L2 reading learning is more effective from CLT and CLIL than GTM despite of being visual skills the main core of translation methods. Secondly, CLT and CLIL demand more contextual learning, so these methods consider pragmatic awareness more relevant than GTM. Results showed CLT method offered more similar results among the reading comprehension tasks (p<.01). However, from a descriptive study, GTM obtained the best performance globally. Pragmatic awareness performed the weakest area among all three methods. However, the interaction between reading comprehension and language awareness suggested that the intervention was more supportive for CLT. Also, significant intra-gender differences according to the learning methodology were provided. Study limitations and future research recommendations also were discussed.

How Many and Which Women Own Land in India? Inter-gender and Intra-gender Gaps

ABSTRACT Measuring gender inequality in land ownership is essential for assessing progress in women’s economic empowerment, tracing the impact of progressive laws on actual practice, and monitoring SDG 5 on gender equality. To effectively assess inter-gender (male-female) gaps in land ownership, however, requires multiple measures. We also need to know which women are more likely to own land by tracing intra-gender differences. To date, no study on India has provided a full range of measures on inter-gender inequality in land ownership or focused on intra-gender variations. This paper uses unique longitudinal data to measure inter-gender gaps in agricultural land ownership through multiple indicators, and changes over 2009–2014 across nine states. It also analyses intra-gender gaps, and identifies the factors–individual, household and regional–affecting a woman’s likelihood of owning land. Despite significant advancement towards equality in inheritance laws, women are found to constitute barely 14% of landowners owning 11% of agricultural land in rural landowning households, averaged across states. Moreover, women are significantly more likely to inherit land as widows than as daughters, highlighting the divergence between the legal strengthening of daughters’ rights and the social legitimacy that widows’ claims continue to enjoy over daughters’ claims.

A study of the differences among EFL/ESL methods for reading Comprehension and language awareness

The present paper reports on the effectiveness of the Grammar-Translation
 Method, Communicative Language Teaching and Content and Language Integrated Learning upon reading comprehension and language awareness. The study recruited a convenience sample of 164 Spanish students from a rural area in southern Spain who randomly received these three ESL/EFL methods. The research was focused on two hypotheses. Firstly, L2 reading learning is more effective from CLT and CLIL than GTM. Secondly, CLT and CLIL demand more contextual learning. Results showed CLT method offered more similar results among the reading comprehension tasks (p<.01). However, from a descriptive study, GTM obtained the best performance globally. In all three methods, scores were weakest for pragmatic awareness. However, the interaction between reading comprehension and language awareness suggested that the intervention was more supportive for CLT. Also, significant intra-gender differences according to the learning methodology were found. Study limitations and future research recommendations also were discussed.

Instructional Goal Structure, Gender, and Second Language Motivation Affecting English Language Achievement

The study opted to: 1) Investigate differences between cooperative and competitive learning modes in the extent to which they affect English language achievement; 2) Find gender, intra-gender, and inter-gender differences in English language achievement within and across the cooperative, competitive, and control group learning conditions; and 3) Study the relationship between students’ motivation to learn the English language and English language achievement. The cooperative and competitive learning groups were used as treatment groups while the control group was the individualized learning group. An English language test was administered to 120 secondary school grade nine students. The 12-item mini-Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (Mini-AMTB) was administered to the students. Different parametric tests were used in the pre-test and post-test data analysis. Post-test data analysis results revealed that cooperative learners significantly outperformed both competitive learners and the control group, but the control group significantly outperformed competitive learners. The gender difference in English language achievement was not significant. The cooperative learning (CL) mode was favored by both male and female students but more favored by males. The five aggregate measures of the mini-AMTB (Integrativeness, Motivational Intensity, Attitudes towards the Learning Situation, Instrumental Orientation, and Parental Encouragement) produced significant positive correlations with English language achievement; however, Language Anxiety negatively and significantly correlated with English language achievement. The CL mode, with its effective CL technique, was recommended to be researched and applied by trained teachers to improve student achievement. Its implications for teacher training were also given. Treatment of second language motivation was recommended as an important issue in second language learning.

The role of gender and its potential channels to affect self-employment in Taiwan

This research investigates the gender differences in the self-employment sector by employing a dynamic panel model with county- and city-level data from 1998 to 2016 in Taiwan. Our study is distinct from most others in this issue in that we explore not only the inter-gender difference, but also the intra-gender differences in self-employment. Following this framework, we first find that women are on average less likely to self-employ than men, and further find that older men, married men, men living in lower income regions and women living in higher income regions are more likely to become self-employed compared to their respective reference groups. We thus argue that gender influences self-employment not only directly but also through interactions with other demographic variables. Separate evaluation of different groups based on demographics should therefore result in better targeting of policies.

Beyond “women and youth”: Applying intersectionality in agricultural research for development

“Women and youth” targets are commonly homogenized both in development discourse and in programmatic targeting. While this framing aims to recognize the customary inequities in agricultural development activities traditionally oriented toward elder men, the homogenization of these categories does not capture the intra-gender differences between these social groups. We explore the utility of intersectionality as an applied analytic concept in agricultural research for development to shed light on the heterogeneity of these social groups and the gender power relations that mediate farmer engagement with agriculture. Drawing on qualitative interview data from the Tanzanian dairy sector, this study applies intersectional analysis to explore how gender, generation, and marital status create power relationships that influence farmers’ positioning to engage in dairy production, institutions, and processes. We find that applying intersectionality helps us understand not only intersecting inequalities but also the fundamentally different experiences and power outcomes that occur at these intersections.

Inter-Gender and Intra-Gender Differences of Parenting Stress among Mothers of Children with Special Needs and Normal Children

Introduction
 Parenting is a major form of stress, especially in children with special needs. However this stress has not been properly understood as evident from paucity of literature in this area.
 Objective
 (i) To evaluate parenting stress among parents (mother & father) of children with special needs and normal children. (ii) To compare parenting stress among mothers of special children and normal children.
 Method
 Assessment of parenting stress using Sheldon Cohen Perceived Stress Scale questionnaire on (i) Parents of 60 special (study group) and 60 normal (control group) children aged between 5 and 12 years. (ii) Mothers of children with special needs and mothers of normal children. The Questionnaire was provided to both parents, they were seated separately in order to avoid bias. Statistical analysis was done using Unpaired t-test.
 Results
 (i) The study group scored higher as compared to the control group with their means and standard deviations being (18.914+ 5.24) and (16.12+ 4.18) respectively. The statistical value of significance (p value) is 0.0019. (ii) The mothers of children with special needs scored higher than mothers of normal children with their means and standard deviations being (19.04 + 5.68) and (15.08 + 5.06) respectively, the p value is 0.014.
 Conclusion
 Present study showed that the parents of special children had significantly higher parenting stress levels as compared to the parents of normal children and mothers of special need children were more stressed than the mothers of normal children. It is important to address this stress as it could lead to impairments of overall quality of life in both parents and their child or children.

Dealing with climate change in semi-arid Ghana: understanding intersectional perceptions and adaptation strategies of women farmers

Climate change has diverse physical and socio-economic implications for communities in semi-arid areas. While several studies have sought to understand the underlying power relations that shape adaptive capacities of rural farmers, fewer studies have focused on unpacking the differences within the different social groups. In this paper, we present a case study based on women smallholder farmers from semi-arid Ghana. It explores their nuanced perceptions of climate variability and highlights how gender intersects with other identities, roles and responsibilities to influence adaptation strategies and barriers to adaptation in the semi-arid context. Farm-level data was collected from 103 women farmers using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Rainfall patterns were perceived by the women farmers to be increasingly erratic and perceptions of average temperatures were that they are increasing. Adoption of adaptation strategies were influenced by socio-demographic factors such as age, marital and residential status, which also influenced decision-making and power dynamics within the household. The paper highlighted the complex relationships that mediate women farmers’ access to resources and influence their vulnerability to climate variability and change. Highlighting the intra-gender differences that shaped the adaptation options and adaptive capacity is a prerequisite for proper adaptation policy planning and targeting.

Inter-Gender and Intra-Gender Differences of Parenting Stress among Mothers of Children with Special Needs and Normal Children

Introduction Parenting is a major form of stress, especially in children with special needs. However this stress has not been properly understood as evident from paucity of literature in this area. Objective (i) To evaluate parenting stress among parents (mother & father) of children with special needs and normal children. (ii) To compare parenting stress among mothers of special children and normal children. Method Assessment of parenting stress using Sheldon Cohen Perceived Stress Scale questionnaire on (i) Parents of 60 special (study group) and 60 normal (control group) children aged between 5 and 12 years. (ii) Mothers of children with special needs and mothers of normal children. The Questionnaire was provided to both parents, they were seated separately in order to avoid bias. Statistical analysis was done using Unpaired t-test. Results (i) The study group scored higher as compared to the control group with their means and standard deviations being (18.914+ 5.24) and (16.12+ 4.18) respectively. The statistical value of significance (p value) is 0.0019. (ii) The mothers of children with special needs scored higher than mothers of normal children with their means and standard deviations being (19.04 + 5.68) and (15.08 + 5.06) respectively, the p value is 0.014. Conclusion Present study showed that the parents of special children had significantly higher parenting stress levels as compared to the parents of normal children and mothers of special need children were more stressed than the mothers of normal children. It is important to address this stress as it could lead to impairments of overall quality of life in both parents and their child or children.

Can High Schools Be an Effective Setting to Promote Healthy Lifestyles? Effects of a Multiple Behavior Change Intervention in Adolescents

PurposeThe main aim was to examine the effects of a school-based intervention on multiple health behaviors in adolescents, such as 24-hour movement behaviors (i.e., physical activity, sedentary time, and sleep duration), diet, and substance consumption (i.e., alcohol and tobacco). Another aim was to examine intragender differences in the effectiveness of the programme. MethodsA quasi-experimental design was carried out in two secondary schools throughout one academic year. A final sample of 210 students participated: 105 in the control (Mage = 13.07 ± 0.63) and 105 in the experimental school (Mage = 13.05 ± 0.59). A multicomponent school-based intervention was conducted by teachers in the experimental school via curricular (i.e., tutorial action plan, interdisciplinary project, and school break) and extracurricular (i.e., family involvement, institutional and noncurricular activities, and dissemination of health information and events) actions to promote adolescents' healthy lifestyles. Physical activity and sedentary time were measured by accelerometers, and the rest of health behaviors by using self-reported scales. ResultsExperimental school students showed a significant improvement in meeting specific and general combinations of 24-hour movement guidelines, sedentary screen time levels, nap duration, (un)healthy diet scores, breakfast intake, and soft drink consumption compared to both control school students and their baseline values (p >.05). Active commuting and substance consumption rates only showed a significant improvement compared to control school students (p >.05). Although the intervention programme was effective in improving health-related behaviors in both genders, a large effect size was observed in boys. ConclusionsConducting multiple health behavior interventions becomes essential to improve adolescents' healthy lifestyles.

Gender differences in chronic liver diseases in two cohorts of 2001 and 2014 in Italy.

Gender differences in chronic liver disease (CLD) have been partially investigated. To extend the present knowledge, we evaluated 12,263 patients with CLD enrolled in two national surveys (9997 in 2001 and 2557 in 2014). The two surveys prospectively recruited patients aged ≥18 referring to Italian liver units throughout the country using a similar clinical approach and analytical methods. The overall male to female ratio (M/F) was 1.4 (7138/5124). Compared with females, males were significantly more likely to be younger (52.9 vs. 58.7 yrs.), with HBV infection alone (13.2% vs. 9.2%) and with alcoholic liver disease alone (11.4% vs. 6.9%), but less likely to show HCV infection alone (48.0% vs. 67.9%). A male preponderance was observed in HBV-related cases (1.99) and in alcoholic-related cases (2.3), a preponderance observed both in the 2001 and in 2014 cases. In HCV-related cases, however, females predominated in 2001 (M/F 0.9) and males in 2014 (M/F 1.5).The rate of cirrhosis in alcohol-related etiology was close to 36% in both genders, a finding much higher than that observed for both sexes in HBV and HCV etiologies.Both males and females enrolled in 2014 were older (p<0.001) and with a higher rate of cirrhosis and/or HCC (p<0.001) than those investigated in 2001. There was a remarkable increase over time in the proportion of male abstainers (36.7% in 2001 and 64.3% in 2014). This study highlights important inter- and intra-gender differences in the characteristics and etiological factors of patients with CLD in Italy.

The diversity of gendered adaptation strategies to climate change of Indian farmers: A feminist intersectional approach.

This paper examines climate change adaptation and gender issues through an application of a feminist intersectional approach. This approach permits the identification of diverse adaptation responses arising from the existence of multiple and fragmented dimensions of identity (including gender) that intersect with power relations to shape situation-specific interactions between farmers and ecosystems. Based on results from contrasting research cases in Bihar and Uttarakhand, India, this paper demonstrates, inter alia, that there are geographically determined gendered preferences and adoption strategies regarding adaptation options and that these are influenced by the socio-ecological context and institutional dynamics. Intersecting identities, such as caste, wealth, age and gender, influence decisions and reveal power dynamics and negotiation within the household and the community, as well as barriers to adaptation among groups. Overall, the findings suggest that a feminist intersectional approach does appear to be useful and worth further exploration in the context of climate change adaptation. In particular, future research could benefit from more emphasis on a nuanced analysis of the intra-gender differences that shape adaptive capacity to climate change.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13280-016-0833-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Policing the private: Social barriers to the effective policing of domestic violence

Problems in policing are commonly framed as institutional failures. This is frequently the case in the policing of domestic violence, where the limited ability of police to assist abuse victims is often reported to be a consequence of a lack of resources or inadequate training for police. This paper examines the challenges and limitations of policing domestic violence from a different angle. Reflecting on key findings from a qualitative study of local perceptions of and attitudes towards domestic violence in the South African township of Khayelitsha, we highlight the strong disciplinary influence of cultural norms and beliefs in shaping victims’ reluctance to involve police in cases of abuse. While our findings clearly underscore the limits of focusing on improved policing absent cultural change, we nuance and qualify this argument by identifying important exceptions from the norm and mapping gendered and intra-gender differences in participants’ concerns.

Policing the private: Social barriers to the effective policing of domestic violence

Problems in policing are commonly framed as institutional failures. This is frequently the case in the policing of domestic violence, where the limited ability of police to assist abuse victims is often reported to be a consequence of a lack of resources or inadequate training for police. This paper examines the challenges and limitations of policing domestic violence from a different angle. Reflecting on key findings from a qualitative study of local perceptions of and attitudes towards domestic violence in the South African township of Khayelitsha, we highlight the strong disciplinary influence of cultural norms and beliefs in shaping victims’ reluctance to involve police in cases of abuse. While our findings clearly underscore the limits of focusing on improved policing absent cultural change, we nuance and qualify this argument by identifying important exceptions from the norm and mapping gendered and intra-gender differences in participants’ concerns.

Policing the private: Cultural norms and beliefs as barriers to the effective policing of domestic violence

Problems in policing are commonly framed as institutional failures. This is frequently the case in the policing of domestic violence, where the limited ability of police to assist abuse victims is often reported to be a consequence of a lack of resources or inadequate training for police. This paper examines the challenges and limitations of policing domestic violence from a different angle. Reflecting on key findings from a qualitative study of local perceptions of and attitudes towards domestic violence in the South African township of Khayelitsha, we highlight the strong disciplinary influence of cultural norms and beliefs in shaping victims’ reluctance to involve police in cases of abuse. While our findings clearly underscore the limits of focusing on improved policing absent cultural change, we nuance and qualify this argument by identifying important exceptions from the norm and mapping gendered and intra-gender differences in participants’ concerns.

The Role of Gender on Student Success

Numerous studies have investigated why computers are perceived as being a male domain. In this study, the authors examine intra-gender differences among undergraduate and graduate students who enrolled in Management Information Systems (MIS) courses and attempt to answer such questions as do males achieve significantly higher scores in MIS courses? Does instructor gender affect female students' academic achievement? Do females underperform males in achievement at either or both undergraduate and graduate levels? This paper provides findings which demonstrate that female students performed significantly better than their male counterparts in the two introductory undergraduate MIS courses and performed equally well in an upper lever MIS course and an introductory course in the graduate program. Male students were impacted by the gender of the teacher. Even though it was not a main focus of the present study, the authors cannot resist making a casual observation that female teachers were more effective in the classroom.

Are Girls more Resilient to Gender-Conformity Pressure? The Association Between Gender-Conformity Pressure and Academic Self-Efficacy

Since the 1990s, it has become clear that Belgian girls tend to outperform boys on educational parameters. Similar educational gender gaps are encountered in other western industrialized countries and are often attributed to cultural conventions concerning typical masculinity and femininity, which would inform gendered study cultures. This paper investigates the influence of gendered peer cultures in Flanders on an individual level by employing the concept of pressure for gender conformity. More specifically, the gender-differentiated impact of gender-conformity pressure is investigated in relation to academic self-efficacy. We examine these inter- and intragender differences in a sample of 6380 seventh-grade students in Flanders (the northern, Dutch-speaking part of Belgium), clustered in 59 schools. The data were collected at the start and the end of the 2012–13 school year. Results from multilevel regression analysis at two waves show that boys’ academic self-efficacy is lower when experiencing more pressure for gender conformity. Girls’ academic self-efficacy, however, does not decline when experiencing similar levels of pressure. In addition, when taking into account the negative toll that pressure for gender conformity has on girls’ well-being, their academic self-efficacy is higher when experiencing more pressure. This gender-differentiated impact of pressure for gender conformity is not apparent at the start of the school year, but emerges in the course of seventh grade. The results are discussed in light of gendered expectations for boys and girls in the Belgian context.