Intra-body Networks Research Articles

Joint Communication and Bio-Sensing With Plasmonic Nano-Systems to Prevent the Spread of Infectious Diseases in the Internet of Nano-Bio Things

With the advances in nanotechnology, novel nanosensing technologies can play a pivotal role in today’s society. Plasmonic sensing has demonstrated unprecedented detection reliability and resolution in a very compact form factor. Traditional plasmonic sensors leverage biofunctionalized metallic grating structures whose frequency response in transmission or reflection changes according to the presence of targeted biomarkers. However, these sensing setups require bulky measurement equipment to couple light to and from sensors for excitation and detection. In parallel, for over a decade, the nanoscale electromagnetic communication community has been leveraging plasmonic structures to transmit information at the nanoscale efficiently. By combining the two realms, this paper proposes the concept of joint nanoscale communication and bio-sensing systems enabled by plasmonic sensing nanoantennas. Sensing nanonodes can communicate from nanonode to nanonode for intra-body networks and from nanonode to a wearable device which, by leveraging the edge, can process and transmit the sensing information to the cloud, resulting in accurate diagnosis and reduced load on the medical testing infrastructure. First, we model the changes in the frequency response of a biofunctionalized plasmonic nanoantenna when exposed to different biomarkers. Then, we propose a chirp-spread spectrum excitation and detection system to enable simultaneous communication and sensing at the nanoscale. We present a data-driven human tissue model for communication through human tissue. We also present numerical results to demonstrate the performance of the proposed system.

Intra-body Networks and Molecular Communication Networks in Diagnostic Sciences.

Intra-body transmission networks are proposed to be composed of nanostructured or micro-sized detectors placed within the body to monitor health and distribute drugs. Transplanted biosensors are thepotential options for monitoring the bodyfor the detection of particular ailments and determining a diagnosis withthe help of a doctor. Biological systems inside the body remain intricately integrated and interact primarily through biochemical interactions. Thus, the continuous communication performance and intra-body molecular nanonetworks coordinate essential functions within the human body. Spontaneous intra-body molecular nanonetworks, on the other hand, have yet to be investigated using sophisticated tools of information and communication concepts. We intend to understand the exquisite molecular networkingthat exists within us to design and develop pragmatic, effective interaction for evolving nanonetworks and also to lay the groundwork for the progression of groundbreaking diagnosis and therapeutic methodologies inspired by technological tools, which have the potential to be helpful in future nanotechnologies and bioinspired molecular communication (MC) applications.

Galvanic Coupling Testbed for Sound Card-Based Intra-Body Communication Links

Abstract: By enabling in-place and real-time monitoring in daily life, intra-body communication (IBC) is a cutting-edge vital research topic that will promote customized treatment. In this study, data transmission over intra-body networks is accomplished using the energy-efficient galvanic coupling (GC) technique. Two standard PCs with sound card support and Matlab software are used to create a novel sound card-based GC testbed with the following key features: (i) low equipment requirements; (ii) high flexibility; (iii) real-time physiological data transmissions; and (iv) nearly error-free communication thanks to the development of specific physical (PHY) layer technology. Additionally, a signal to noise ratio (SNR) computation is suggested, serving as both a frequency offset compensation method and a statistic to assess the proposed design. The created GC testbed might be quickly copied by the interested research community to do simulation, encouraging more study in this area.

Performance Evaluation of Magnetic Resonance Coupling Method for Intra-Body Network (IBNet).

Effective management of emerging medical devices can lead to new insights in healthcare. Thus, human body communication (HBC) is becoming increasingly important. In this paper, we present magnetic resonance (MR) coupling as a promising method for the intra-body network (IBNet). The study reveals that MR coupling can effectively send or receive signals in biological tissue, with a maximum path loss of PL ≤ 33 dB (i.e. at 13.56 MHz), which is lower than other methods (e.g., galvanic, capacitive, or RF) for the same distance (d = 100 cm). The angular orientation of the transmitter and receiver coils at short and long distances also show a minor variation of the path loss (0.19 ≤ ∆PL ≤ 0.62 dB), but more dependency on the distance (0.0547 dB/cm). Additionally, different postures during the MR coupling essentially does not affect path loss ( ∆PL ≤ ± 0.21 dB). In the multi-nodal transmission scenario, the MR coupling demonstrates that two nodes can simultaneously receive signals with -16.77 dBm loss at 60 cm and 100 cm distances, respectively. Such multi-node MR transmission can be utilized for communication, sensing, and powering wearable and implantable devices.

Embedded Nano Relay for Intra-Body Network-Based Molecular Communications

We propose an embedded synthetic relay transport protein (RTP) approach for communication between the external environment (blood vessels) and internal targeted nanonetworks (cells/tissues) within the intra-body network. In fact, we designed a bioengineered relay protein-based facilitated diffusing to be an alternative protein in the case of biological transport proteins (such as protein channels, e.g. Pores) failing. The proposed approach is inspired by the traditional wireless communication system-based relay concept, in which embedded nanodevices known as donor, relay, and acceptor bionanomachine construct a molecular communication system. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer nanocommunications are used to connect the embedded bionanomachines, and the therapeutic drug is transferred in the form of exciton. The performance analysis of the proposed approach is evaluated in terms of channel capacity of RTP as function of intrinsic environmental parameters and the location of the relay between the donor, and acceptor bionanomachines. The numerical results show that the proposed approach improves channel capacity by 16.7% over previous work.

What Ultrasound Can and Cannot Do in Implantable Medical Device Communications.

Modern Active Medical Implantable Devices require communications to transmit information to the outside world or other implantable sub-systems. This can include physiological data, diagnostics, and parameters to optimise the therapeutic protocol. The available options are to use optical, radiofrequency, or ultrasonic communications. However, in all cases, transmission becomes more difficult with deeper transmission through tissue. Challenges include absorption and scattering by tissue, and the need to ensure there are no undesirable heating effects. As such, this paper aims to review research progress in using ultrasound as an alternative for deep tissue communications. We provide an empirical review of the technology and communication protocols that different groups have used, as well as comparing the implications in terms of penetration depth, implant size, and data rate. We conclude that this technique has promise for deeper implants and for intrabody communications between implantable devices (intrabody networks).

Ultrasonic Indexed Modulation and Multiple Access for Intra-Body Networks

Intra-body communication (IBC) plays a significant role in future health care systems. This article proposes a pulse-based ultrasonic index modulation (UsIM) to enable high data rate and low power IBCs. Two grouping-based UsIM strategies, namely ultrasonic grouped-chip indexed modulation (UsCIM) and ultrasonic chip-group indexed modulation (UsGIM), are proposed to implement multiple access for intra-body networks (IBNs). UsCIM uses the chip indices in a group to convey additional information bits for a biosensor node, while UsGIM uses the group indices and each node occupies one chip in a group. Three receivers, including the maximum likelihood (ML), the maximum ratio combination (MRC), and the energy detection (ED) receivers, are then proposed and studied. The theoretical bit-error rate (BER) upper bound for the ML receiver, and theoretical BER expressions for the MRC and ED receivers are derived. The system performance metrics in terms of complexity, throughput and energy efficiency are analyzed. The analytical and simulation results reveal that UsGIM achieves a lower BER than UsCIM under channel fading and multipath effect. Both UsCIM and UsGIM achieve higher throughput and energy efficiency than the existing IBC systems, and both strategies are important for energy-constrained implanted IBNs.

Enabling Real-Time Monitoring of Intrabody Networks Through the Acoustic Discovery Architecture.

This article proposes the first acoustic discovery architecture (ADA) for intrabody networks (INs). The main objective of ADA is to discover and interrogate, in real-time (RT), all the implanted medical devices (IMDs) that are part of an IN. This permits noninvasive RT diagnosis for patients with multiple IMDs. ADA will allow medical doctors to have vital information, on-the-go, for treating patients and to constantly monitor them. The architecture was implemented in a network simulator emulating a real-life IN, based on preliminary experimental results. ADA is in charge of scanning the body volume, by exploiting the beam-forming and beam-steering capability of piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers (pMUTs) arrays, and efficiently interrogating all the reached devices for their status. As a result, a full IN map can be reconstructed together with all the vital signs of a patient. ADA shows very good RT capabilities, with a full scanning time from 1500 down to 100 ms and energy consumption from 2.6 down to 0.2 mJ, depending on the scanning accuracy, for a body torso volume of [Formula: see text].

Towards 6G in-X Subnetworks With Sub-Millisecond Communication Cycles and Extreme Reliability

The continuous proliferation of applications requiring wireless connectivity will eventually result in latency and reliability requirements beyond what is achievable with current technologies. Such applications can for example include industrial control at the sensor-actuator level, intra-vehicle communication, fast closed loop control in intra-body networks and intra-avionics communication. In this article, we present the design of short range Wireless Isochronous Real Time (WIRT) in-X subnetworks aimed at life-critical applications with communication cycles shorter than 0.1 ms and outage probability below 10 -6 . Such targets are clearly beyond what is supported by the 5th Generation (5G) radio technology, and position WIRT as a possible 6th Generation (6G) system. WIRT subnetworks are envisioned to be deployed for instance in industrial production modules, robots, or inside vehicles. We identify technology components as well as spectrum bands for WIRT subnetworks and present major design aspects including frame structure and transmission techniques. The performance evaluation considering a dense scenario with up to 2 devices per m 2 reveal that a multi-GHz spectrum may be required for ensuring high spatial service availability. The possibility of running WIRT as an ultra-wideband underlay system in the centimeter-wave spectrum region is also discussed. Aspects related to design of techniques for the control plane as well as enhancements to the presented design is the focus of our ongoing research.

Characterization of the Fat Channel for Intra-Body Communication at R-Band Frequencies.

In this paper, we investigate the use of fat tissue as a communication channel between in-body, implanted devices at R-band frequencies (1.7–2.6 GHz). The proposed fat channel is based on an anatomical model of the human body. We propose a novel probe that is optimized to efficiently radiate the R-band frequencies into the fat tissue. We use our probe to evaluate the path loss of the fat channel by studying the channel transmission coefficient over the R-band frequencies. We conduct extensive simulation studies and validate our results by experimentation on phantom and ex-vivo porcine tissue, with good agreement between simulations and experiments. We demonstrate a performance comparison between the fat channel and similar waveguide structures. Our characterization of the fat channel reveals propagation path loss of ∼0.7 dB and ∼1.9 dB per cm for phantom and ex-vivo porcine tissue, respectively. These results demonstrate that fat tissue can be used as a communication channel for high data rate intra-body networks.

Data Packet Transmission Through Fat Tissue for Wireless IntraBody Networks

This paper explores high data rate microwave communication through fat tissue in order to address the wide bandwidth requirements of intrabody area networks. We have designed and carried out experiments on an IEEE 802.15.4-based WBAN prototype by measuring the performance of the fat tissue channel in terms of data packet reception with respect to tissue length and power transmission. This paper proposes and demonstrates a high data rate communication channel through fat tissue using phantom and ex-vivo environments. Here, we achieve a data packet reception of approximately 96% in both environments. The results also show that the received signal strength drops by ∼1 dBm per 10 mm in phantom and ∼2 dBm per 10 mm in ex-vivo . The phantom and ex-vivo experimentations validated our approach for high data rate communication through fat tissue for intrabody network applications. The proposed method opens up new opportunities for further research in fat channel communication. This study will contribute to the successful development of high bandwidth wireless intrabody networks that support high data rate implanted, ingested, injected, or worn devices.

Distributed Algorithms for Joint Channel Access and Rate Control in Ultrasonic Intra-Body Networks

Most research in body area networks to date has focused on traditional RF wireless communications, typically along the body surface. However, the core challenge of enabling networked intra-body communications through body tissues is substantially unaddressed. RF waves are in fact known to suffer from high absorption and to potentially lead to overheating of human tissues. In this paper, we consider the problem of designing optimal network control algorithms for distributed networked systems of implantable medical devices wirelessly interconnected by means of ultrasonic waves, which are known to propagate better than radio-frequency electromagnetic waves in aqueous media such as human tissues. Specifically, we propose lightweight, asynchronous, and distributed algorithms for joint rate control and stochastic channel access designed to maximize the throughput of ultrasonic intra-body area networks under energy constraints. We first develop (and validate through testbed experiments) a statistical model of the ultrasonic channel and of the spatial and temporal variability of ultrasonic interference. Compared to in-air radio frequency (RF), human tissues are characterized by a much lower propagation speed, which further causes unaligned interference at the receiver. It is therefore inefficient to perform adaptation based on instantaneous channel state information (CSI). Based on this model, we formulate the problem of maximizing the network throughput by jointly controlling the transmission rate and the channel access probability over a finite time horizon based only on a statistical characterization of interference. We then propose a fully distributed solution algorithm, and through both simulation and testbed results, we show that the algorithm achieves considerable throughput gains compared with traditional algorithms.

A queueing-theoretical delay analysis for intra-body nervous nanonetwork

Nanonetworks is an emerging field of study where nanomachines communicate to work beyond their individual limited processing capabilities and perform complicated tasks. The human body is an example of a very large nanoscale communication network, where individual constituents communicate by means of molecular nanonetworks. Amongst the various intra-body networks, the nervous system forms the largest and the most complex network. In this paper, we introduce a queueing theory based delay analysis model for neuro-spike communication between two neurons. Using standard queueing model blocks such as servers, queues and fork-join networks, impulse reception and processing through the nervous system is modeled as arrival and service processes in queues. Simulations show that the response time characteristics of the model are comparable to those of the biological neurons.

A nonparametric stochastic optimizer for TDMA-based neuronal signaling.

This paper considers neurons as a physical communication medium for intrabody networks of nano/micro-scale machines and formulates a noisy multiobjective optimization problem for a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) communication protocol atop the physical layer. The problem is to find the Pareto-optimal TDMA configurations that maximize communication performance (e.g., latency) by multiplexing a given neuronal network to parallelize signal transmissions while maximizing communication robustness (i.e., unlikeliness of signal interference) against noise in neuronal signaling. Using a nonparametric significance test, the proposed stochastic optimizer is designed to statistically determine the superior-inferior relationship between given two solution candidates and seek the optimal trade-offs among communication performance and robustness objectives. Simulation results show that the proposed optimizer efficiently obtains quality TDMA configurations in noisy environments and outperforms existing noise-aware stochastic optimizers.