Intimacy Research Articles

Validation of the Zarit Burden Interview in Informal Caregivers of Patients with Severe Visual Impairment and Blindness.

The needs of family caregivers providing care to relatives with visual impairment are often dismissed, leading to caregiver burden. The Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) can measure the caregiver burden of caring for a family member with vision impairment. The purpose of this study is to validate the ZBI in Mexican family caregivers of patients with visual impairment. The ZBI was applied to 137 family caregivers of patients with visual acuity ≤ 20/200 in the best eye for ≥ 6months. The ZBI's reliability was determined using Cronbach's α and the factor structure using exploratory factor analysis (EFA, principal axis factoring with promax rotation). Items with loadings < 0.400 were eliminated. Retained factors were determined using the scree test and Horn's parallel analysis (95%CI). Associations between burden factors and other variables were evaluated with descriptive and inferential statistics. Mean ZBI score was 26.2 ± 13.1, and internal consistency was high (α = 0.871). EFA yielded four factors: (1) embarrassment and frustration, (2) self-efficacy expectations, (3) interference in personal relationships, and (4) personal strain. The α values ranged from 0.649 to 0.812. Spousal caregivers had significantly higher scores (factors 1, 2, and 4), whereas adult children had less scores (factor3). There was a significant positive correlation between hours of daily caregiving and factors 2 (r = 0.350) and 3 (r = 0.388). A worse degree of visual impairment was associated with higher mean factor scores in all factors. The ZBI is a valid instrument to detect burden in Mexican caregivers of patients with visual impairment. We identified a four-factor structure that improved our understanding of the ZBI's underlying constructs. Interventions targeting specific types of burden are warranted.

Causal and common risk pathways linking childhood maltreatment to later intimate partner violence victimization.

Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization are major psychiatric risk factors. Maltreatment substantially increases the likelihood of subsequent IPV victimization, but what drives this association is poorly understood. We analyzed retrospective self-reports of maltreatment and IPV victimization in 12,794 participants (58% women, 42% men) from the Twins Early Development Study at ages 21 and 26 using quantitative genetic methods. We estimated the etiological influences common to maltreatment and IPV, and the effect of maltreatment on IPV beyond such common influences. Participants who reported childhood maltreatment ( ~ 7% of the sample) were 3 times more likely than their peers to also report IPV victimization at age 21, 4 times more likely at 26. The association between maltreatment and IPV was mostly due to environmental influences shared by co-twins (42-43%) and genetic influences (30-33%), as well as nonshared environmental influences (25-27%). The association between maltreatment and IPV was similar for women and men, but its etiology partly differed by sex. Maltreatment had a moderate effect on IPV in phenotypic models (β = 0.25-0.30), decreasing to a small-to-moderate range in causally informative models accounting for their common etiology (β = 0.15-0.21). Risk factors common to maltreatment and IPV victimization are largely familial in origin, environmental and genetic. Even considering common risk factors, experiencing maltreatment may be causally related to subsequent IPV victimization. Interventions promoting safe intimate relationships among young adults exposed to maltreatment are warranted and should address family-level environmental risk and individual-level risk shaped by genetics.

The Dynamics of Tourism, Economic Growth, and CO2 Emissions in Uzbekistan: An ARDL Approach

In this study, we examined the impact of key macroeconomic variables on the sustainability of tourism in Uzbekistan using open data from the World Bank from 2000 to 2023. The selected variables for the study include the number of international tourists, GDP, CO2 emissions, and exchange rates. Considering the importance of climate issues in ensuring sustainable tourism, the study combines these factors using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model to assess their long-term relationships. We chose this model due to its flexibility in dealing with variables of different integration orders. The results of the bounds testing procedure confirm the existence of a long-term cointegration relationship between the dependent variable (international tourist arrivals) and the selected macroeconomic indicators. Specifically, the study results indicate that GDP growth, exchange rate fluctuations, and CO2 emissions positively affect tourist arrivals to Uzbekistan. The findings of this study underscore the importance of infrastructure development and macroeconomic stability in attracting international tourists while emphasizing the need for sustainable international practices to mitigate environmental impacts. This study contributes to understanding the complex interrelationship between tourism development and macroeconomic variables in the context of developing countries and aids decision-making in this area.

Revictimization of women victims of intimate partner violence in the French press: A social representations approach.

This study aims to analyze how the press portrays cases of revictimization experienced by women in France, through the lens of social representation theory. An exploratory, descriptive study was conducted using a corpus of 157 online press articles. A total of 187,773 words and 5,240 segments were analyzed using Iramuteq version 7, employing top-down hierarchical classification and lexical similarity analysis. The analysis identified four classes: 1. Violent incidents (25.5%); 2. Political actions against violence (26%); 3. Institutional revictimization (26.6%) and 4. Violence and breaking the silence (21.9%). The findings illustrate how media portrayals contribute to the construction of social representations surrounding revictimization. Class 1 reveals a focus on extreme cases of violence, such as femicides, and highlights a potential gender bias in media reporting through the omission of terms like 'femicide'. Class 2 demonstrates the influence of ideological perspectives on the portrayal of political measures against violence, with conservative outlets framing such actions within traditional values, while progressive newspapers advocate for systemic reform. Class 3 shows a gap in the conceptualization of institutional revictimization in the French press compared to other countries, revealing how conservative portrayals can minimize systemic issues and perpetuate harmful stereotypes. Class 4 shows the role of female journalists in addressing various forms of violence, despite the limited impact of the #MeToo movement in recent coverage. Collectively, these findings elucidate how media representations shape public attitudes and institutional responses to gender-based violence through the lens of social representations.

Contextual Factors Influencing Firearm Deaths Occurring Among Children.

Contextual factors that contribute to firearm injuries among children aged 0 to 10 are not well understood. A retrospective review of the National Fatality Review-Case Reporting System was conducted for firearm deaths of children aged 0 to 10 from 2004 to 2020. Descriptive analyses characterized child and parent demographics, incident details, firearm characteristics, and firearm use. Cluster analysis identified key clustering of contextual variables to inform prevention efforts. Within the study timeframe, 1167 child firearm deaths were reported (Mage = 4.9; 63.2% male; 39.4% urban). At the time of the incident, 52.4% of firearms were reported unlocked and 38.5% loaded. Firearm deaths occurred primarily at the child's home (69.0%) or a friend or relative's home (15.9%), with most involving a handgun (80.6%). Children were supervised in 74.6% of incidents, and 38.4% of child supervisors were impaired during the incident. Cluster analysis identified incident contextual factors clustering in distinct groups, including unsupervised firearm play, long gun discharge while cleaning, hunting, or target shooting, supervised discharge within the child's home, murder-suicide events, deaths occurring in the context of intimate partner violence, and community violence firearm deaths. Data highlight the importance of primary prevention through secure firearm storage to prevent child firearm deaths. Efforts focused on identifying and reducing intimate partner violence, addressing community violence (eg, community greening), and implementing policy that limit firearm access (eg, domestic violence restraining orders, background checks), may reduce child firearm deaths.

Initiation and continued use of oral pre-exposure prophylaxis among pregnant and postpartum women in South Africa (PrEP-PP): a demonstration cohort study

When used effectively, oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP; tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine) prevents maternal HIV acquisition and reduces the risk of vertical transmission. Our study aimed to better understand PrEP initiation, continued use, and adherence in pregnant and postpartum women. The PrEP in Pregnancy and Postpartum (PrEP-PP) study is a demonstration cohort study that enrolled pregnant women aged 16 years and older without HIV attending their first antenatal care visit in Cape Town, South Africa, between Aug 29, 2019, and Oct 10, 2021. Eligible, consenting women were followed up quarterly up to 12 months postpartum with regular HIV testing and offer of PrEP with ongoing adherence counselling. The primary outcome was distribution of women across the PrEP cascade (ie, initiation and continuation up to 12 months postpartum) with crude and adjusted hazard ratios (HRs). We also report on HIV incidence by pregnancy and postpartum status. Overall, 1195 pregnant women were recruited and followed up (median age 26 years, IQR 23-31; median gestational age 21 weeks, IQR 15-31); 1009 (84·4%) started PrEP at enrolment. Among women who initiated PrEP at enrolment, 668 (67·5%) of 990 continued PrEP at the 1-month follow-up, 485 (49·9%) of 972 continued at 3 months, 392 (39·4%) of 994 at 6 months, and 275 (27·4%) of 1005 at 12 months. Of 186 women who did not accept PrEP at enrolment, 70 (37·6%) of 186 subsequently initiated PrEP. Overall, 200 (18·6%) of 1076 women continued PrEP at 12 months postpartum. Of 186 women who did not initiate PrEP at baseline, 70 (37·6%) subsequently initiated PrEP during the study. Factors associated with PrEP discontinuation up to 12 months postpartum included being married or cohabiting (adjusted HR 1·32, 95% CI 1·16-1·50), condomless sex since last visit (1·43, 1·23-1·65), reporting intimate partner violence (2·03, 1·59-2·59), or depression in the past 12 months (1·53, 1·14-2·05). Overall, 16 women seroconverted over 1673·8 woman-years (HIV incidence rate 0·96 per 100 woman-years, 95% CI 0·49-1·42); 14 discontinued PrEP use and two never initiated PrEP. HIV incidence was 0·28 per 100 woman-years during pregnancy (95% CI 0·22-0·33), and the incidence rate ratio was 1·77 per 100 woman-years (0·53-5·90) 0-6 months postpartum and 2·19 per 100 woman-years (0·61-7·83) 6-12 months postpartum compared with pregnant women. There is an urgent need for the integration of PrEP into antenatal and postnatal care and interventions that address barriers to continued use, including targeted counselling during pregnancy and postpartum to reduce PrEP discontinuation. National Institute of Mental Health and Fogarty International, US National Institutes of Health. For the French translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Association of Women Empowerment with Intimate Partner Violence in Saudi Arabia

Association of Women Empowerment with Intimate Partner Violence in Saudi Arabia

Childhood Firearm Deaths During Intimate Partner Violence Incidents: 2004-2020.

Childhood Firearm Deaths During Intimate Partner Violence Incidents: 2004-2020.

The impacts of income inequality, forest area, and technology innovations on ecological footprint in Indonesia: ARDL and ML approach

Reducing humans’ ecological footprint (ECF) is critical for guaranteeing a sustainable future and sustaining the planet's health for future generations. Consequently, sustainability policies and development aim to minimize ECF and guarantee a sustainable future. This study analyzes the effects of gross domestic product (GDP), financial development, renewable energy, share of global forest area, and technological innovations on the ECF of the Indonesian economy from 1990 to 2020. The Autoregressive Distributed Lag approach is applied to observe the varying levels of influence across variables. The findings show significant short-term links between GDP, income inequality, technological advancements, and ECF, and statistically significant long-term relationships between GDP, share of forest area, and technological innovation. The machine learning approach uses neural networks and regression as its parametric models to analyze the data for prediction. Both models can predict how the parameters interacted with ECF, with neural networks making more accurate predictions. The study reveals that economic growth intensifies ECF, whereas income equality decreases it. Technological advancements and forest expansion benefit the environment by reducing the footprint. These insights can provide policy recommendations to minimize ECF in Indonesia and strengthen the efforts to achieve a sustainable future.

Psychographic segmentation of alcohol quitters in behaviour change maintenance mode: utilsisation of the activity interest opinion (AIO) framework

Purpose This study aims to cluster psychographic activities, interests and opinions of alcohol quitters in behaviour change maintenance mode to form segmentation bases for social policy and alcohol policy formulation that sustain the behaviour change. Design/methodology/approach A two-step cluster analysis was used to segment a cross-sectional sample of n = 501 former alcohol consumers based on their activity interest and opinion (AIO) framework through a multiple-response survey design. Findings Five clusters were found across five AIO themes of “people socialised with”, “relationship interest”, “ingredients of a good relationship”, “party activities” and “outing dressing”. The clusters were honesty-based relationship seekers, spiritual- and intellectual-based relationship seekers, attention seekers in a healthy relationship, self-conscious seeking a healthy relationship, and sincere, spiritual and intellectual-based relationship seekers. Practical implications The findings present an opportunity for social policy design that encourages alcohol-free social space creation, strong family ties, community and spiritual growth and incentives for long-term relationships as means of sustaining alcohol quitters’ behaviour. Equally, alcohol policies that match the themes of the clusters can be designed to aid sobriety sustenance. Originality/value This study advances knowledge of behaviour change maintenance and provides lifestyle segments of alcohol quitters as bases for further social and alcohol policy design to sustain gains in behaviour change.

Violence Against Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review of Literature on the Victim-Perpetrator Relationship.

Violence against children affects children in every region, nation, and community in the world. Despite a significant body of literature about the victims of such violence, there has been little empirical research, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, focused on perpetrators, their relationship to victims, and interventions that might alter their behavior. This scoping review sought to identify and summarize the scholarly literature on perpetrators of violence against children in Sub-Saharan Africa and their relationship with victims. Using a keyword search of academic databases, we included peer-reviewed studies published from January 2013 to June 2023 that focused on physical, sexual, or emotional violence against children in Sub-Saharan Africa and included prevalence data about victim-perpetrator relationships. Eighteen of the 42 studies that met eligibility criteria shared one or more primary data sources with other studies included in this review, most frequently using data from Violence Against Children Surveys (10), the Uganda Good Schools Project (7), and the National Child Homicide Study (3). The most common classifications of perpetrators, in order of frequency, were caregivers/family members, intimate partners, peers, teachers/school staff and strangers, and the most common settings in which research took place were schools. Wide variability in the taxonomies used to define and report frequencies for age, victim, perpetrator, and type of violence obscures our ability to form a complete picture of victim-perpetrator relationships. Research emphasis on victims of violence may lead to missed opportunities to disrupt the perpetration of violence against children through interventions that specifically target its source.

Association Between Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Women’s Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence: Evidence from Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2017–2018

Many women justify intimate partner violence (IPV), resulting in adverse health outcomes. This study investigates the relationship between household ownership of information and communication technologies (ICTs), along with the frequency of listening to the radio and watching television with women’s attitudes towards IPV in Bangladesh. The cross-sectional study analyzed a weighted sample of 20,032 women and used a multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine the association between predictor variables and outcome variables. The results showed that 19.47% of women justified wife beating for at least one reason. We found that household ownership of computers (AOR = 0.73 [95% CI = 0.57, 0.95]), women in households with three ICTs (AOR = 0.67 [95% CI = 0.47, 0.96]), and women who watched television at least once a week (AOR = 0.85 [95% CI = 0.74, 0.97]) were associated with decreased odds of justifying wife beating for at least one reason after adjustment for the frequency of reading newspaper or magazine, age, wealth, education, religion, and type of place of residence. The study suggests that not all ICTs affect women’s attitudes toward IPV equally. Computers and television were more influential than other ICTs. This finding suggests that awareness-building and educational programs targeted towards women via computer and television may deliver better outcomes about gender norms.

Effects of Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Programming on Social Support, Coparenting, and Parenting Among Teen Parents: A Pilot Study

Understanding mechanisms and secondary outcomes of intimate partner violence (IPV) prevention programs for teen parents can help to improve relationships. This study used data from a randomized pilot trial of the Safe Dates for Teen Mothers IPV prevention program compared to the original Safe Dates program with 32 teen mothers recruited from four community-based sites. We examined effect sizes of cross-sectional associations between IPV, social support, coparenting, and parenting, and of differences between the adapted program and the original on social support, coparenting, and parenting over 6 months. Effect sizes of associations were medium on average. Effect sizes on social support, coparenting, and parenting favored the adapted program over the original program and were medium to large. IPV prevention programs adapted for teen parents have the potential to support positive dynamics in their social relationships. These preliminary estimates can inform the design of larger research and intervention studies.

Emotional awareness, child maltreatment and child exposed to intimate partner violence: A systematic review of their relationship with symptoms and protective factors

AbstractThis systematic review studies the emotional awareness (EA) in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) and other child maltreatment (CM), and their relationship with externalizing and internalizing symptoms and protective factors. The search was performed using the PubMed, PsycINFO and Google Scholar databases. The search was based on scientific studies using the follow terms: (“emotional awareness” OR “emotional intelligence”) AND (child OR adolescent OR children OR teenager) AND (abuse OR neglect OR maltreatment OR “presence of domestic violence” OR “domestic violence” OR “intimate partner violence”). Seventeen empirical studies were included, presenting a low risk of bias (82%). Four studies have explored the relationship between EA and exposition to IPV, four with sexual abuse, five with neglect, five with psychological abuse and three with physical abuse. A total of 13 articles have assessed the relationship between EA and externalizing and internalizing symptoms: three with suicidal ideation (SI), three with post‐traumatic stress symptoms (PTSD), two focused on addictions, three on affective symptoms, one with total externalizing symptoms, one with borderline personality disorder (BDP), one with non‐suicidal self‐injury (NSSI) and one with disordered eating behaviours and attitudes (DEBA). Studies show that abused children have lower EA and that the lower EA, the greater the presence of symptoms. A total of 10 articles have assessed the relationship between EA and protective factors such as mental health in parents, six with coping skills, one with self‐stem and one with quality of life. The main results suggest that EA could be a mediator between children exposed to IPV and other CM and internalizing and externalizing symptoms as well as protective factors.

ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF MONETARY INSTRUMENTS ON THE SIZE OF THE DOMESTIC PUBLIC DEBT

The article is devoted to highlighting the results of research aimed at improving existing approaches to conducting a comprehensive analysis of the nature of the relationships between the parameters of the state's monetary and debt policy. Among other things, such indicators as the size of the domestic public debt, the size of international reserves, the level of inflation, the exchange rate and the discount rate are taken into account.The proposed approach to the analysis of the influence of managed monetary indicators on the size of the internal state debt proved that the use of the ARDL model gives slightly better results than the VECM in terms of the adequacy of the description and forecasting of the studied process. At the same time, both models proved their ability to describe the change in the size of the internal state debt, and have high values of coefficients of determination and low values of the indicator of the average absolute percentage error. In the future, it is recommended to use it for the analysis of the causality of the influence, discriminant analysis and the expediency of changing monetary instruments independently of other instruments.On the basis of the developed models, the results were obtained, which allow us to draw conclusions that the system continues to remain stable after fluctuations of key factors capable of destabilizing it and will be able to return to its previous state after a shock for some time. This is confirmed by the fact that, on the basis of statistical tests, the existence of a long-term relationship between the investigated indicators and the impulse response function together with the decomposition of the variance of the VAR model was proved.

Responsible Email Marketing in Higher Education

In higher education, responsible email marketing emerges as a critical strategy for engaging students, alums, and potential students meaningfully and ethically. By comprehensively examining best practices and regulatory compliance, we aim to provide educational institutions with actionable insights for cultivating trust and enhancing communication effectiveness in their email marketing campaigns. This paper explores the nuanced landscape of responsible email marketing within higher education, focusing on balancing effective communication and ethical considerations. The paper aims to identify the starting points for creating a responsible email marketing campaign in higher education. Sources such as Marketing Compare, OmniUpdate, IBM Marketing Cloud and CoSchedule were used for secondary research. The results were formulated based on data published in surveys by RNL, Emma, Oberlo, LeadSquared, Full Fabric, Barnes and Noble, and WordStream. The following scientific research methods were used to create individual parts of the paper: extraction, information collection and processing, comparison, analysis, synthesis and interpretation. By examining current practices, regulatory frameworks, and case studies, we identify strategies institutions can employ to respectfully and effectively engage their audiences. Our analysis highlights the importance of transparency, consent, and personalisation in fostering trust and building long-term relationships with students, alums, and prospective learners.

Interconnected Stock Markets: Analysing Cointegration and Correlation among Global Stock Indices

This study examines the long-term and short-term relationships among five major global stock indices—NSE NIFTY (India), S&amp;P 500 (USA), FTSE 100 (UK), Hang Seng (Hong Kong), and Nikkei 225 (Japan)—over the period from 2008 to 2023. Using advanced econometric techniques such as Johansen cointegration tests, Engle-Granger residual cointegration test and the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM), the research explores the degree of interconnectedness and cointegration among these indices. The results indicate strong positive correlations between NSE NIFTY, S&amp;P 500, and Nikkei 225, suggesting a growing synchronization of these markets due to global economic integration. Johansen's test reveals the presence of multiple long-term equilibrium relationships, affirming that despite short-term deviations, these markets tend to move together in response to global macroeconomic factors. The analysis further highlights that the S&amp;P 500 and FTSE 100 indices exhibit significant error correction mechanisms, underscoring their leadership role in global market dynamics. In contrast, NSE NIFTY shows a weaker adjustment toward long-term equilibrium, indicating its reactive nature to changes in other global indices, particularly the S&amp;P 500. The study finds that while Hang Seng and Nikkei 225 are connected globally, their short-term linkages appear weaker, likely influenced by regional factors. Overall, the results emphasize the critical influence of the U.S. and Japanese markets on NSE NIFTY, with both long-term cointegration and short-term market dynamics shaping the Indian stock market’s movements. This research offers key insights for investors seeking to understand global stock market interdependencies and manage portfolio risk.

"I Didn't Have a Choice": Experiences, Responses and Perceived Motivations for Reproductive Coercion and Abuse in Australian Women.

This study explored reproductive coercion and abuse (RCA) experiences of community-based victim/survivors, their responses to RCA, and perceived motivations for RCA. One hundred and one female RCA victim/survivors completed an online questionnaire. Intimate partners, family, friends, cultural/religious leaders, and health professionals were RCA perpetrators. Victim/survivors' RCA experiences were heterogeneous, incorporating a range of pregnancy-preventing and pregnancy-promoting RCA tactics. Women's response to RCA depended on how it was experienced; victim/survivors were more likely to reassert control when RCA was verbal and not physical. Finally, control was the primary motivator for RCA, followed by contextual factors, drug use, and religion/culture.

The nexus between economic, demographic, policy and human development in South Africa: An econometric analysis

The Human Development Index, which accounts for both net foreign income and the total value of goods and services generated domestically, illustrates how income becomes less significant as Gross National Income (GNI) rises by using the logarithm of income. South Africa ranks 109th out of 189 countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) within the Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) economic bloc, raising long-term sustainability concerns. The study explores the relationship between economic, demography, policy indicators and human development in South Africa. South Africa’s unique status as a developing country within the BRICS economic group, alongside its lengthy history of racial discrimination, calls for a sophisticated approach to understanding Human Development. Existing research considered economic, demography, policy indicators independently; the gap of understanding their interconnection and long-term effects in the South African contexts exists. The study addresses the gap by using Autoregressive-Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach to investigate the short-term and the long-term relationship between economic, demography, policy indicators and human development in South Africa. By discovering these links, the study hopes to provide useful insights for policymakers seeking to promote sustainable human development in South Africa. The findings indicate that growth in GDP is a key factor in the HDI since it shows that there are more financial resources available for human development. By discovering these links, the study hopes to provide useful insights for policymakers seeking to promote sustainable human development in South Africa.

Links Between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Peer Relationships and Mental Health Outcomes in Western Australian Youth

Peer relationships are critical in the development of positive mental health during childhood and adolescence. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms can adversely affect the development of positive peer relationships, and thus, have significant long-term implications for mental health. This study explored the long-term relationships between ADHD symptoms, peer relationships and mental health in Western Australian adolescents. Participants were drawn from a sample of 1489 young people: n = 623 males with a mean age of 13.79 years (SD = 1.61) and n = 866 females, with a mean age of 14.29 years (SD = 1.51). Data were collected at three timepoints across three successive years, with different numbers of participants contributing data at each timepoint. Participants completed measures of ADHD symptoms and existing peer problems in the first year; five measures of peer relationships in the second year; and four measures of mental health in the third year. Multiple regression and path analyses were used to determine whether ADHD symptoms predicted scores on the peer relationship and mental health measures and whether peer relationships mediated links observed between ADHD symptoms and mental health. ADHD symptoms significantly predicted both long-term problematic peer relationships and long-term adverse mental health outcomes. Three peer relationship variables were significant mediators of relationships between ADHD symptoms and mental health: sense of belonging, friendships and perceived isolation. ADHD symptoms significantly predict poor peer relationships and adverse mental health outcomes in Western Australian youth, regardless of whether a formal diagnosis has been assigned. Early interventions for young people with ADHD symptoms are needed for such individuals to enjoy positive mental health in their adult years.