Intimate Images Research Articles

Sextortion: A Scoping Review.

Sextortion refers to making threats to share nude or sexual images to coerce the victim into complying with certain demands, such as paying a ransom, sharing intimate images, or engaging in unwanted acts. Sextortion occurs in a diverse range of contexts, including intimate partner abuse, cyberbullying, sexuality or sex worker "outing," online dating, "cybersex," sex trafficking, online sexual exploitation of children, computer hacking, and organized crime. Despite the heightened media focus, few studies have measured the prevalence, nature, and impacts of sextortion. We conducted a scoping review with the aim of providing a comprehensive overview of existing empirical research on sextortion victimization and perpetration among youth and adults. In total, 24 studies were identified based on predefined eligibility criteria. We found that studies focusing on youth reported prevalence ranging from 0.7% to 5.0%, while studies involving adults ranged from 4.0% to 18.7%. The review found that young people and sexual minorities are more likely to experience victimization, while men, young people, and sexual minorities are more likely to self-report engaging in sextortion offending. The review found that perpetrators are more likely to be intimate partners or other known persons as opposed to strangers and that there was an overlap between sextortion perpetration and victimization. Finally, we also found that sextortion can result in significant harms, and that reporting and help-seeking remain very low due to shame, fear, and negative perceptions of police and digital platforms. The findings highlight existing gaps and provide recommendations for future research, policy, and practice.

Tackling Gender-Based Violence to Increase College Students’ Well-Being: A Study on Psychosocial Dimensions Affecting Attitudes Toward the Nonconsensual Intimate Image Dissemination

One of the most recent forms of gender-based violence is non-consensual intimate images dissemination (NCII). This type of offense, popularly referred to as “revenge pornography”, consists of the nonconsensual creation, dissemination, or threat of dissemination of nude or sexually explicit images (photographs and videos) of individuals. NCII is considered a public health issue because of its damaging psychological consequences, especially among adolescents and young adults. According to the social-ecological perspective, psychosocial variables (e.g., endorsement of sexist attitudes, rape myths, sexual double standards, and stereotypes on masculinity) influence and bias perceptions of NCII, but research on these dimensions is still lacking. The present study aims to investigate such variables in a sample of Italian college students (N = 309, 65.4% female, mean age = 21.95, SD = 2.00). The results will be discussed in the light of interventions aimed at raising awareness of violence and its prevention, thus increasing youth well-being in their educational and everyday contexts.

Non-consensual intimate image distribution: Nature, removal, and implications for the Online Safety Act

Non-consensual intimate image distribution: Nature, removal, and implications for the Online Safety Act

Hurtful Digital Communications In Hong Kong: Stakeholder Accounts

Hurtful digital communications (HDC) is an umbrella term referring to a wide variety of text and image-based practices online, such as cyberbullying or the non-consensual distribution of intimate images (NCDII). They can cause significant harm to victims and, as elsewhere, these practices are on the rise in Hong Kong. This paper represents the first stage of a project aimed at developing a coherent, broad-spectrum response to that rise. It discusses nine interviews with stakeholder groups or representatives in Hong Kong, revealing commonalities and themes in their experiences with clients who have been victims of HDC. While Hong Kong has recently adopted piecemeal reform of criminal laws targeting certain HDC practices such as ‘up-skirting’, NCDII, and doxing, these interviews suggest that these reforms alone are unlikely prove effective. Amongst other things, the interviews reveal a desire by victims not simply for punishment but resolution and restitution. Other jurisdictions have responded to these desires through the adoption both of expanded civil actions and broader regulatory regimes. This paper sets the groundwork for justifying similar reforms in Hong Kong. Keywords: Law, Technology, Cyberbullying, NCDII, Communications, Hong Kong, Privacy, Tort, Regulation

EU approach towards violence against women and domestic violence – new EU Directive

European Union (EU) approach towards violence against women and domestic violence is analyzed through interconnection with principles of gender equality and nondiscrimination. The combination of gender-based discrimination and gender inequality with other forms of discrimination (economic, political, etc.) very often result in specific forms of violence against women. EU acceded the Istanbul Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence of the Council of Europe in June 2023, which was spiritus movens for the adoption of the new EU Directive in this field. Achievements and shortcomings of this Directive are presented, as well as its significance within existing relevant EU primary and secondary legislation. New legislation criminalizes the following offences across the EU: female genital mutilation, forced marriage, non-consensual sharing of intimate images, cyber stalking, cyber harassment and cyber incitement to hatred or violence. However, criminalization of rape is lacking due to the absence of agreement of the constitutional element of sexual consent. Instead, prevention of rape and raising awareness of the importance of central role of consent are included. Taking into account the problem of secondary victimization, the Directive regulates rules on the measures of assistance and protection to victims that are to be secured by Member States, who are obliged to implement Directive in three years period. Directive gains special significance when taking into account relevant official data on violence against women in the EU. This Directive is to be considered the step forward in the direction of realization of gender equality de facto.

Book Review: Anna Gjika, When Rape Goes Viral: Youth and Sexual Assault in the Digital Age.

In "When Rape Goes Viral: Youth and Sexual Assault in the Digital Age" Anna Gjika delves into the complex interplay between digital technology and the criminal justice system's handling of sexual violence, particularly among adolescents. The digital age has transformed many aspects of society, including how sexual violence is perpetrated, recorded, and prosecuted. This transformation raises critical questions about the adequacy of existing legal frameworks and the need for systemic reform to address the nuances of digital abuse effectively. Gjika’s work is pivotal as it uncovers the dual roles of digital platforms—both as tools for empowerment and instruments of victimization. The author uses a range of case studies to illustrate how digital media can both aid in bringing justice to victims and exacerbate their victimization through cyberbullying and unconsented sharing of intimate images. This scholarly analysis seeks to unpack the contributions of Gjika's work to the field of criminal justice, specifically in the context of digital harm, the inadequacies of existing legal frameworks, and the influence of gender dynamics, race, and circumstances surrounding sexual assault incidents.

Image-Based Sexual Abuse Perpetration: A Scoping Review.

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) refers to the nonconsensual creating, taking, or sharing of intimate images, including threatening to share images. It can also include coercing someone into sharing intimate images, or sending unwanted intimate images. In recent years, there has been growing attention to the nature, scope, and impacts of IBSA, but comparatively little attention has been paid to the perpetration of these harms. This scoping review consolidates and synthesizes the existing knowledge on the perpetration of IBSA against adults. The review involved a systematic search of scholarly and gray literature across select databases. In total, 26 studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies were included if they were published in English between 2013 and 2023 and reported on findings of a sample of adults over the age of 16 who admitted IBSA perpetration behaviors. The review found that prevalence of subtypes of IBSA varied significantly across the studies. There was consensus that adults who engage in IBSA perpetration are more likely to be men, younger adults, and LGBTIQ+. Motivations were multifaceted, but tended to relate to social rewards, power dynamics, sexual gratification, and retaliatory impulses. Dark Tetrad traits were found to be positively associated with IBSA perpetration. The research also indicates on overlap between victimization and perpetration, as well as an association with other offending behaviors, such as intimate partner violence. Prevention interventions should be focused on changing the opportunities, affordances, and infrastructures for offending, as well as addressing problematic societal attitudes and norms, with early interventions focused on building resilience and self-esteem, and promoting healthy behaviors and respectful relationships.

‘Stupid Girls’ vs. ‘Real Men’: Identity Construction and Social Media Polarization over Revenge Porn

The purpose of this paper is to explore polarization in the discourse of social media commentators over crimes of Revenge Porn. Revenge porn refers to “the nonconsensual sharing of intimate images” (Bond and Tyrrell 2021, 2166), videos, or other intimate material, which are weaponized against its victims. As with other crimes, revenge porn cases are highly discussed on social media, where users might (a) reproduce prejudice and stigma against victims or, contrarily, (b) resist victim-blaming and shaming ideologies as a form of activism and call for empathy (Garcés-Conejos Blitvich and Bou-Franch 2019; Palomino-Manjón 2022). In light of this, this paper examines the discursive construction of the phenomenon of revenge porn and the evaluations proposed of victims and perpetrators on the social network YouTube with the aim of unveiling conflicting ideologies online. To this end, the present study analyzes a corpus of 14,000 comments (ca. 411,000 words) from four different YouTube videos tackling revenge porn cases. The paper adopts a Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies (CADS) approach (Partington et al. 2013) and uses Sketch Engine to analyze the corpus. Additionally, a more detailed analysis of evaluative resources and linguistic patterns is carried out. Results show that polarized understandings of revenge porn abound in the corpus. Specifically, victim-blaming ideologies are discursively concealed, whereas traditional ideologies regarding sex are overtly encoded. Moreover, male users affiliate with newer constructions of masculinity and dissociate from the illegal actions attributed to perpetrators. Women/victims are generally derogated for not conforming to societal views of common-sensical sexual behavior or praised for their strength in standing social judgment.

Suicidal Ideation Among Male Victim-Survivors of Financial Sextortion

ABSTRACT Financial sextortion is a specific form of image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) in which an offender threatens to publicly distribute a victim’s intimate images or videos unless the victim pays a ransom to the offender. While other forms of IBSA predominately impact women, financial sextortion is unique in that adult men and minor boys are most at risk for victimization. Incidents of financial sextortion have increased globally in the last five years, yet there is limited empirical research on the psychological outcomes for victim-survivors. However, recent media reports highlight several tragic cases in which financial sextortion victims, especially minor boys, have taken their own lives in response to these coercive scams. The purpose of this study is to understand the prevalence and predictors of suicidal thoughts and ideation among male victims of financial sextortion. Using a sample of 215 victim-survivors of financial sextortion, the results indicate that suicidal thoughts are common for this group. In addition, victims who experience concurrent self-conscious emotions (such as shame, guilt, embarrassment, and humiliation) and hypersensitivity are more likely to endorse suicidal ideation. The results also indicate that among participants who do endorse suicidal ideation, depressed mood significantly predicted severity of suicidal thoughts.

Non-consensual intimate image distribution: Nature, removal, and implications for the Online Safety Act

Research was conducted in partnership with the Revenge Porn Helpline (RPH) to examine the location and removal of non-consensual intimate image (NCII) abuse. By examining reports to the helpline, data were collected to uncover where intimate images were being non-consensually distributed, how they were proportionally distributed across platforms, and avenues for image removal. The data confirm that social media plays a key role in NCII distribution and provides further insight into where images are being distributed outside of social media platforms. Data on image removal indicate that knowledge of how to navigate different types of platforms is important for image removal success, making contributions from organisations such as the RPH vital, and highlighting the need to make reporting processes more accessible. The findings also indicate significant gaps within the Online Safety Act which will need to be addressed if the Act is to effectively protect victim-survivors. In particular, the need to move beyond focusing on services with the largest user numbers and broadening the scope to include smaller high-risk and problematic platforms.

Examining perceptions of blame and homophobia: the impact of sexual orientation on non-consensual intimate image dissemination

ABSTRACT Our aim was to investigate whether blame attribution toward same-sex victims compared to heterosexual victims of NCII and offense severity evaluation were associated with homophobic attitudes. Two-hundred-and-sixty men and women, who described themselves as heterosexual, were presented with vignettes depicting an NCII offense in which the intimate material was released by the victim’s ex-intimate partner. Victim’s and perpetrator’s sex were manipulated (i.e. gay, lesbian, heterosexual). We found that higher levels of homophobic attitudes were linked with lower severity attributions for same-sex perpetrator-victim pairs, but not for opposite-sex pairs. Additionally, higher levels of homophobic attitudes were associated with lower blame attributed to the perpetrator, but higher blame attributed to the victim. Sex differences were found, revealing that men tended to attribute higher blame to same-sex victims compared to heterosexual victims, whereas women showed no significant differences in blame attribution based on victim’s sexual orientation. Men also exhibited higher levels of homophobic attitudes than did women. The study reveals the impact of homophobic attitudes on blame allocation in NCII cases, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to reduce victim-blaming and promote inclusivity. The role of technology in shaping behavior was also underscored, urging consideration of sex and sexual orientation in response strategies.

Sextortion: Prevalence and correlates in 10 countries

The growing threat of sexual extortion (”sextortion”) has garnered significant attention in the news and by law enforcement agencies around the world. Foundational knowledge of prevalence and risk factors, however, is still nascent. The present study surveyed 16,693 respondents, distributed equally across 10 different countries, to assess prevalence of victimization and perpetration of threatening to disseminate intimate images. Weighted by gender, age, region, and population, 14.5% of respondents indicated at least one experience of victimization, while 4.8% of respondents indicated perpetration of the same. Demographic risk factors for perpetration and victimization were also assessed. Consistent with findings from other studies, men (15.7%) were 1.17 times more likely to report being victimized compared to women (13.2%), and 1.43 times more likely to report perpetration. LGBTQ+ respondents were 2.07 times more likely to report victimization compared to non-LGBTQ+ respondents, and 2.51 times more likely to report offending behaviors. Age was significantly associated, with younger participants more likely to report both victimization and perpetration experiences. The most common type of perpetrator, as reported by victims, was a former or current partner. Despite the strong likelihood of under-reporting given the topic area, the study found that experiencing threats to distribute intimate content is a relatively commonplace occurrence, impacting 1 in 7 adults. Implications for potential mitigation are discussed.

When a Boy Hurts a Girl in Cyberspace: Facilitators’ Views on Potential Benefits and Challenges in Restorative Justice

Recent years have seen a significant increase in cyber sexual offenses (CSO) conducted through the creation and distribution of intimate images and videos of others without their knowledge or consent, oftentimes among minors. Restorative justice (RJ) offers a platform to conduct an open, direct, and safe dialogue between responsible persons (RP) and survivors. This explorative study aimed to identify the central characteristics of RJ processes conducted following CSO between youths and to explore their potential benefits and challenges. The study involved in-depth interviews with 10 RJ facilitators and mediators in Israel and Belgium, who led RJ processes following CSO among minors. In addition, content analysis of documents describing these processes was conducted. Four themes emerged: The uniqueness of youth CSO; features of direct encounter; intergenerational aspects; and the need to manage expectations of the process among youth, parents, and facilitators.

“It Spread Like Wildfire, as These Things Do”: Exploring Mechanisms of Harm in Young Norwegians’ Experiences of Image-Based Sexual Abuse

ABSTRACT It is widely reported that image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) victimization is linked to a wide range of detrimental outcomes, including anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation. However, knowledge about what shapes victims’ experiences remains limited. To explore underlying mechanisms of harm in IBSA incidents, the present study drew on the concept of appraisal to elucidate the various meanings that victims attach to IBSA. For this purpose, we carried out a reflexive thematic analysis of 20 individual in-depth interviews with young male and female victims (ages 16–26) of IBSA. Using this approach, we developed four overarching themes that capture participants’ experiences of being (1) robbed of bodily autonomy, (2) stripped of privacy, (3) subjected to public scrutiny, and (4) trapped in a state of uncertainty. By delineating the different ways that participants appraised and experienced each of these “layers of victimization,” our findings show how the harms of IBSA may be shaped by a complex constellation of situational, personal, and cultural structures and conditions. Importantly, as some of these mechanisms are socially constructed, our findings indicate that efforts aimed at reducing negative outcomes of IBSA should address the interpersonal and cultural context of these incidents, including bystander responses to intimate image dissemination.

Misunderstandings and Intentional Misrepresentations: Challenging the Continued Framing of Consensual and Nonconsensual Intimate Image Distribution as Child Pornography

AbstractMany educational presentations continue to straightforwardly frame both consensual and nonconsensual intimate image distribution among youth as child pornography. This continues despite the availability of a purpose-built offence for nonconsensual intimate image distribution (NCIID) that was designed, in part, to avoid the use of child pornography offences in NCIID cases and the existence of a “private use exception” that limits the applicability of child pornography offences in cases of consensual “sexting” among youth. This sometimes inaccurate and, I argue, inappropriate focus on child pornography offences is especially common in presentations by police and public safety personnel. Through a discursive analysis of Canadian case law and a case study of educational approaches provided by the CyberScan unit, I find that the continued dominance of a child pornography framing is based on both genuine misconceptions of how these offences apply to intimate image distribution and intentional misrepresentations of the legal context.

Conceptual framework for global protection against technology-enabled violence against women and girls

Technology-enabled violence against women and girls has emerged as a significant and complex issue in today's digital age. This form of violence, which includes cyberstalking, online harassment, and the non-consensual sharing of intimate images, poses serious threats to the safety, privacy, and well-being of women and girls worldwide. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive and coordinated response that integrates legal, technological, and social interventions. This concept paper proposes a conceptual framework for global protection against technology-enabled violence against women and girls. The framework is based on a thorough review of existing literature, research, and best practices in the field, and aims to provide a roadmap for stakeholders to develop effective strategies and interventions to prevent and address this form of violence. The framework consists of the Legal Dimension which focuses on the legal frameworks and mechanisms needed to prevent and address technology-enabled violence against women and girls. It includes an analysis of existing laws and regulations, as well as recommendations for strengthening legal protections and ensuring accountability for perpetrators. The Technological Dimension explores the role of technology in both perpetrating and preventing violence against women and girls. It includes an examination of technological solutions, such as digital security tools and platforms, as well as ethical considerations related to technology development and use. The Social Dimension examines the social and cultural factors that contribute to technology-enabled violence against women and girls. It includes an analysis of gender norms, power dynamics, and social media dynamics that influence the prevalence and impact of this form of violence. The framework also includes strategies for implementing its recommendations at the global level, including advocacy efforts, capacity-building initiatives, and partnerships with governments, civil society organizations, and the private sector. It emphasizes the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration in addressing this complex issue. Overall, the conceptual framework for global protection against technology-enabled violence against women and girls aims to provide a comprehensive and holistic approach to addressing this pressing global challenge. We hope that this framework will serve as a valuable resource for stakeholders working to create a safer and more inclusive digital environment for women and girls worldwide.

Judicial Constructions of Harm in Australian Image-Based Sexual Abuse Case Law: A Feminist Discourse Analysis

Despite almost every Australian state and territory criminalizing image-based sexual abuse (IBSA), which includes the non-consensual taking, creating, or sharing of intimate images, judicial discourse in this context remains underexplored. In this article, using feminist critical discourse analysis, we investigate how Australian courts conceptualize the harms of IBSA in 47 criminal and civil cases. We find that while the serious harms suffered by individual victim-survivors are widely recognized, judicial discourse on societal harms is limited, with little to no recognition of IBSA as a form of gender-based violence (GBV) in and of itself. This is significant for several reasons, including the overrepresentation of women victim-survivors and male perpetrators in our dataset, and the gender and other inequalities that often underpin IBSA. We argue that by adopting an inclusive gender-based approach, the courts can promote more nuanced, relational, and holistic understandings of the individual and societal harms of IBSA, knowledge of which is important for addressing this rapidly growing form of GBV in Australia and internationally.

Disclosure Decisions and Help-Seeking Experiences Amongst Victim-Survivors of Non-Consensual Intimate Image Distribution

ABSTRACT The non-consensual dissemination of intimate images (NCII) is a form of technology-facilitated, image-based sexual abuse. Despite causing significant harm, research indicates a reluctance to seek support. Thus, this study aimed to develop practitioner recommendations for improving support accessibility by exploring NCII victim-survivors’ disclosure decisions and experiences of accessing support. Thematic Analysis of 31 UK adult victim-survivor interviews revealed informal support was favored, although some did not disclose to anyone. Disclosure responses ranged from supportive to judgmental. Barriers to help-seeking included stigma and perceiving formal support services as inaccessible. Recommendations for improving formal support accessibility such as service visibility, education and inclusive practices are discussed.

Stories of digital sexual assault: an analysis of victim positions in news media

ABSTRACT Digital sexual assault, the non-consensual sharing of intimate images, is becoming an increasingly debated topic leaving victims and survivors to negotiate a large number of stories about and representations of digital violence in the public sphere. This article investigates the construction of victimhood in the Danish press coverage of digital sexual assault. The study shows that victims’ stories and perspectives are under-represented in public discourse, and further analysis of selected media articles leads to the identification of five dominant victim positions: 1) The innocent girl; 2) The forever-ruined victim; 3) The greedy, guilty victim; 4) The local, working-class victim; and 5) The heroic victim. These victim positions frame victims either as passive or as responsible for the assault, its consequences, and their own recovery. It is the conclusion of the study that the public media’s construction of victimhood lacks nuance and diversity and risks marginalizing victims and their experiences of digital victimization.

차별의 문제로서의 여성에 대한 젠더 기반 폭력

Women and girls who are victims of violence need active protection from the state because they are mostly socially vulnerable and cannot escape the danger of violence on their own. Especially with the development of the Internet, violence against women is no longer limited to the analog world, and perpetrators are using the Internet in their acts of violence in the digital world as well. Cyberviolence manifests itself in a variety of ways, from threatening messages and cyber-stalking to consensual/ unconsensual uploading of intimate images. This analysis of the Volodina v. Russia judgment (no. 2) addresses how the European Court of Human Rights (“the Court”) examines and justifies interference with the scope of protection based on the legal concept of the State’s positive obligations in dealing with the issue of violence against women in the digital dimension. The Court focuses on Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (Right to respect for private life) to explain the positive obligation of the state. It sets out the legal instruments of the state’s positive obligations in contrast to its negative obligations, and explores the extent to which they have been applied in specific cases. It is also necessary to critique why the European Court of Human Rights does not examine violations of the prohibition of discrimination under Article 14 (principle of non-discrimination) of the European Convention on Human Rights when determining the scope of protection in this case. CEDAW has already considered gender-based violence against women as an important human rights issue from the very beginning, stipulating that it concerns women precisely because it often affects them disproportionately and is therefore discrimination against women. For this reason, the European Court of Human Rights should have addressed in the judgment at least whether, in addition to a violation of Article 8 of the Convention, the Russian authorities had also violated Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights.