Sport Psychology Interventions Research Articles

Applying Positive Psychology in Sport: A Trainee’s Case Study

Positive psychology is an approach to psychology that focuses on the utilization of strengths, positive emotions, well-being, and personal growth to help individuals thrive, flourish, and achieve optimal functioning. The following case study highlights how positive psychology theories and techniques, specifically strengths-development and gratitude interventions, were implemented into a sport psychology intervention by a trainee sport and exercise psychologist. It is hoped that other practitioners may find the case study a useful insight into how they may be able to incorporate positive psychology into their practice.

Psychological characteristics and future success: A prospective study examining youth soccer players at different stages within the German talent development pathway

In soccer substantial work has been invested to identify factors predicting future performance and success. As it concerns psychological characteristics, quantitatively and qualitatively limited research restricts insights on potential differences due to moderating variables such as players’ age and developmental stage within the talent pathway. Thus, the purpose of this study was to extend the empirical evidence on psychological characteristics by (a) validating the prognostic power of potential talent predictors for adult success in U17 “elite promotion” stage players and by (b) comparing these results to the group of U12 “talent development” stage players of the former study by Höner and Feichtinger using the same methodological approach. For both, an online survey was utilized to assess psychological variables across the domains of motivation, volition, self-concept, and emotions. Further, players’ performance level was determined four years after the assessment (i.e., U12 success criteria: admission to youth academy; U17 success criteria: achieving professional status). The statistical analyses revealed notable differences in the expression and prognostic value of psychological characteristics between the two samples. Among U17 players, dysfunctional (e.g., fear of failure, competitive anxiety) and functional attributes (e.g., hope for success, ego-orientation, competitiveness) significantly predicted individuals’ professional status. The results are discussed within the light of potential environmental demands which may influence the role of psychological dispositions and skills throughout talent development. Additionally, the significance of reliable assessments for applied practice is highlighted regarding sport psychological diagnostics and interventions. Lay summary: To optimally support talent development in soccer, researchers and practitioners seek to understand factors which facilitate players’ successful progression through talent pathways up to a professional level. The current study highlights psychological characteristics (e.g., hope for success, competitiveness) which predict future performance and should thus be nourished in young players.

Sport-related concussion disclosure in women's rugby-A social identity approach.

Sport-related concussion (SRC) is a risk of collision sports such as women's rugby. To support appropriate SRC diagnosis and management, an understanding of the factors that encourage SRC disclosure is necessary. To date, research has focused on ascertaining individual player knowledge and attitudes towards SRC disclosure. We chose to investigate the potential influence of group identification effects by examining the role of social identity on SRC disclosure in elite women's rugby. Seventeen elite players from the United Kingdom and Ireland were interviewed and their transcripts thematically analysed. The data highlighted that the players shared a very strong social identity as women in rugby and were acutely aware that their experiences were different to their male counterparts. The shared social identity had both positive and negative implications for SRC disclosure. The players interviewed did not feel comfortable disclosing their symptoms to their coach and often felt that medical staff either did not listen to them or were unavailable to them. Mediators such as communication, trust in medical teams, perceived pressure, positive injury management experience, and player role models were identified. This research could be utilised to inform sport psychology interventions to enhance SRC disclosure in elite women's rugby.

A Case Study Investigation Into a Group Online Sport Psychology Support Intervention for Injured Athletes

Sport psychology support can have a positive impact on sport injury rehabilitation; however, there appear to be barriers to injured athletes accessing such support (e.g., financial and geographical constraints). Online delivery has been suggested as a method to address some of these barriers. This case study therefore sought to explore whether an online sport psychology support hub was an effective method of sport injury psychology support. Sixteen injured athletes (seven male and nine female) participated in a 6-week sport psychology intervention where they were given access to an online hub moderated by a sport psychologist, in which sport psychology support was provided through social support (online forum), written emotional disclosure (diary), and psychological skills development (education resources). The impact of the hub was measured through analysis of the forum posts, diary entries, and responses to an evaluation questionnaire. While engagement with the hub was not as high as anticipated, the athletes reported several positive benefits from using the hub and rated its overall impact highly, demonstrating the potential of online delivery.

Adaptation and Validation of the Arabic Version of the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport.

Our goal for this study was to adapt the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport (MIS) into written Arabic that would be easily understood in North African countries (Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco or TAM). Assessment tools in Arabic, such as this MIS-TAM version, are rare but essential for evaluating the effectiveness of sport psychology interventions. We adopted a committee approach to obtain a first Arabic version of the MIS. We asked a team of translators to adapt the items to the level of understanding of 13-year-old athletes by selecting words common to the culture of the three countries. The validation process underwent three phases. In Study 1, we tested MIS-TAM for clarity and deemed it acceptable. In Study 2 we tested the construct validity of two different models with confirmatory factorial analyses. These analyses confirmed that the structure of the 15-item MIS-TAM was psychometrically similar to the original version; it had a first order model encompassing three dimensions: Awareness, Non-Judgement and Refocusing. Analyses also found the internal consistency of the MIS-TAM acceptable. We assessed convergent validity in Study 3 with the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale, but no correlations between the two instruments were significant. In conclusion, the MIS-TAM has acceptable psychometric properties, though further work is needed regarding convergent validity. The rigorous work of translation and adaptation focused on shared linguistics in three target countries, and this questionnaire will also prove useful in other countries where Arabic is the main language.

Effective Delivery of Pressure Training: Perspectives of Athletes and Sport Psychologists

Pressure training (PT) strategically increases pressure in training to prepare athletes to perform under pressure. Although research has studied how to create pressure during training, PT’s effectiveness may depend on more than creating pressure. A practitioner’s delivery of sport psychology interventions can moderate their effectiveness, so the current study explored perspectives of sport psychologists and athletes on the characteristics of effective PT delivery in applied settings. Eight international-level athletes and eight sport psychologists participated in semistructured qualitative interviews in which they described their experience participating in or conducting PT, respectively. Thematic analysis produced four themes relating to effective delivery: (a) collaboration with athletes and coaches: “with,” not “to”; (b) integration into training; (c) upfront transparency; and (d) promoting learning before and after PT. The themes provide guidance for planning, conducting, and following up on PT sessions in applied settings. The best practices discussed could increase athletes’ receptiveness to PT.

Complex interventions

ABSTRACT Methods of analysis in systematic reviews of interventions continue to develop as authors seek to answer questions about not only whether interventions work, but how and why they work. As our knowledge improves about how complexity in intervention design, implementation and context explains the variation in the association between interventions and outcomes, systematic reviewers increasingly seek to understand this complexity. This article explores how authors of systematic reviews can through their analysis provide the evidence that supports our understanding of how sport and exercise psychology interventions are intended to work and how complexity in the interventions themselves and in the environment they are introduced into may explain the variation in their impacts. It identifies key methods and tools to support reviewers to understand and analyse complexity in interventions, illustrated with examples from sport and exercise psychology. While complexity can be challenging to incorporate into an analysis of interventions in a systematic review, it is an important step for reviewers to take to make sense of large and complex bodies of evidence and to inform the efficient development and adaptation of interventions.

The Impact of an Online Sport Psychology Intervention for Middle-Distance Runners: Should Self-Regulation or Mindfulness Be Prioritized?

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine the impact of an online self-regulation intervention (SI) and mindfulness intervention (MI) in improving exercise-induced-pain (EIP) management, mental performance (i.e., SI and MI), and mental health. A sample of 16 middle-distance runners who participated in an 8-week SI or MI was purposefully selected based on the participants’ high, moderate, and low pre–post intervention evolution scores. Findings, which were generated by performing a codebook thematic analysis, suggest that both the SI and MI positively impacted EIP management, mental performance, and mental health. EIP literacy enabled the participants from both interventions to more effectively manage EIP. Furthermore, screening for mental illness symptoms and referring athletes in a timely manner to appropriate mental health practitioners was perceived as essential for them to receive the care and support they needed. Finally, a hybrid delivery format may be the most effective when providing online sport psychology interventions.

The lived experience of sport-related concussion: A collaborative inquiry in elite sport

Sport-related concussion(s) (SRCs) pose a complex problem to researchers and practitioners alike. The psychological and emotional experience of these injuries requires individualized and multidisciplinary intervention to promote wellbeing and effective recovery. These interventions require a thorough understanding of the SRC experience. Thus, collaborative inquiry, a novel approach in the SRC domain, was employed to give athletes a voice in how their experience is portrayed and understood within the research and applied communities. Data were generated over two years through on-going discussion and reflection between the researchers and twelve elite athletes who experienced SRCs. Athletes advocated for a broader view of their injury that considers the interplay of sociocultural factors and the individual’s psychosocial experience. Mutual engagement through interviews, member reflections, focus groups, follow-up emails, and further reflective conversations generated two composite narratives. These narratives are interpreted using Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory to underline the interplay of factors: (1) microsystem (athletic identity), (2) mesosystem ((dis)trust in relationships), (3) exosystem (concussion protocols), (4) macrosystem (sport culture), and (5) chronosystem (timing related to major events and recovery). Through this unique combination of methodology and theory within SRC research, we aim to highlight opportunities for applied intervention, multidisciplinary collaboration, and future scientific exploration Lay summary: Elite athletes who experienced concussions collaboratively created stories which highlight the complexity of concussions. These stories and accompanying analysis are intended to help practitioners and researchers further understand some of the psychological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to injury experience and recovery. Practical Implications: This article aims to facilitate an understanding of some of the complex and interacting factors that impact an elite athlete’s experience with concussion. Through a narrative exploration of athletes’ experiences and a multi-systems theory, this article highlights potential targets for applied sport psychology and rehabilitative interventions. Specifically, psychological, social, and cultural barriers and factors are identified as potential intervention areas, all of which have been largely ignored in existing return-to-sport protocols.

The Strengths-Based Performance Profile (SBPP): A Method for Strengths-Spotting and Application in Single-Session Consultations with Athletes

The performance profile technique is a standard, theory-driven sport and performance psychology intervention for enhancing various psychological outcomes within athletes and teams. Despite the popularity of the technique, current literature and practices are focused almost exclusively on performance profiling for deficiency driven purposes and addressing identified areas for improvement. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a radical adaptation of the performance profile technique anchored in positive psychology (i.e., strengths-based approaches and broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions) and solution-focused principles to build mental readiness in single-session contexts. The conceptual, theoretical, and empirical rationale, overview, benefits, and applied considerations of the strengths-based performance profile (SBPP) are presented herein to propose a novel strengths-focused application of the performance profiling procedure. To conclude, we discuss how the SBPP technique can be used to help athletes, coaches, and sport psychology professionals better understand, assess, and capitalize on existing strengths in preparation for upcoming performances.

Volition in Sports

Abstract. Volition is an essential component of sport and exercise. It comprises self-regulation processes complementing motivation to facilitate successful action. Therefore, sport psychological interventions or psychological skills training largely involve volition. Essentially, three theoretical approaches to volition have stimulated sport psychological research: the theory of action control, the Rubicon model of action phases, and the resource depletion model. These three models will be outlined and evaluated with regard to their contribution to sport psychological research. Despite their contributions, research on the exact mechanisms underlying volition is still in its infancy. Based on new developments involving affective neuroscience and self-control success, potential mechanisms are suggested. Subsequently, we discuss how these developments can advance the aforementioned well-established theories.

How Does a Sport Psychological Intervention Help Professional Cyclists to Cope With Their Mental Health During the COVID-19 Lockdown?

All around the world in March, due to COVID-19, competitive sport calendars were suddenly canceled, jeopardizing the training programs of athletes. Moreover, in Italy, the government banned all non-essential travel across the entire country from the beginning of March. Consequently, Italian cyclists were banned from leaving their homes and therefore unable to perform their ordinary training activities. The Italian Association of Professional Cyclists (ACCPI) early on during that period noticed that several cyclists were experiencing a worrying decrease in their mental well-being and asked the authors to set up an online Sport Psychology Intervention (SPI) during lockdown to enhance the athletes' mental health. Through a number of unprecedented events and considerations, the aim of the current investigation was to assess the Italian cyclists' mental health during the lockdown and its changes after the SPI. We validated the Italian version of the Sport Mental Health Continuum Short Form (Sport MHC-SF)—presented in Study 1—and then applied it to a sample of Italian professional cyclists—presented in Study 2—prior to and after the SPI. To achieve these objectives, the reliability and construct validity of the Italian version of the Sport MHC-SF were tested in Study 1. RM-MANOVA tests were run to evaluate the effect of SPI on cyclists in Study 2. A total of 185 Italian athletes were involved in the validation of the MHC in Study 1 and 38 professional cyclists in Study 2. Results from Study 1 suggested a three-factor higher order model of Sport MHC-SF [Model fit: χ2(df) = 471.252 (252), p < 0.000; CFI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.049; RMR= 0.048]. MCFA showed that the default model kept invariance among groups of athletes (i.e., female, male, individual, and team sports). Results from Study 2 highlighted that professional cyclists who followed the SPI were able to cope better with psychological stressors, showing improved well-being compared to the athletes that did not. No significant differences were found for emotional and social well-being. The present multi-study paper contributes to the theoretical field with a validated measure of Sport MHC-SF translated in the Italian language and culture. It also provides practical implications related to cases of reduced mental health due to injury, illness, or similar situations of home confinement in the future.

An evaluation of My Strengths Training for Life™ for improving resilience and well-being of young people experiencing homelessness.

This community-based study investigated whether (1) a novel sport psychology informed positive youth development program, My Strengths Training for Life™, improved resilience and well-being and (2) young people differed in outcomes according to demographics (gender, ethnicity, social inclusion, and learning difficulty). A total of 246 young people (M age = 19.74, SD = 2.31) living in a large housing service completed questionnaires on demographics, mental skills, and preand postprogram resilience and well-being. Baseline differences in resilience and well-being existed for ethnicity and learning difficulty status but did not influence MST4Life™ outcomes. There was a significant improvement in resilience and well-being over time, which was associated with mental skills development. Implications apply for policy, program commissioners, and research: (1) novel sport psychology interventions can improve the well-being of disadvantaged youth, and (2) demographics at baseline should be considered in intervention planning and evaluation with this population.

Implementation of an App-Based Blended Mindfulness Intervention in a Bundesliga Youth Academy Targeting Goalkeepers: A Case Study

Integrating extensive sport psychological interventions into the daily routine of young football players poses a problem. This case study aimed to describe the implementation of an app-based blended mindfulness intervention in a German Bundesliga youth academy to improve goalkeepers’ (n = 6) attention. A mindfulness app was combined with regular group workshops. The study included an outcome evaluation based on pre- and postintervention assessments of attention performance and process evaluation based on recorded training time and collected qualitative data. The results showed an improvement in the players’ Frankfurt Attention Inventory-2Lscores andKscores. The training time with the app was low (M = 30.51 min), but high (M = 200.00 min) without the app. To implement an app-based intervention successfully, the results imply that players need more assistance with the app, and time management and informal training should be incorporated into sport-specific exercises.

Psycho-behavioral momentum: Golf matchplay players’ perspectives

This study employed a qualitative in-match recording technique to understand how A-grade amateur golfers (n = 8) experience psycho-behavioral momentum during competitive matchplay. The aims were to capture, in real-time, thoughts and emotions associated with perceived changes to psycho-behavioral momentum, to understand what high-standard golfers perceive as significant triggers for both positive and negative psycho-behavioral momentum, and what strategies they might employ during a competition to maintain positive psycho-behavioral momentum and to overcome negative psycho-behavioral momentum. To complement the matchplay data, semi-structured group interviews were conducted to corroborate interpretive findings from the matchplay data and to discuss participants’ beliefs regarding momentum in the matchplay environment. Thematic analysis of both data sets revealed four themes to emerge from the participants’ statements pertaining to the genesis and maintenance of their experience of psycho-behavioral momentum: Unexpected Events (discrepancy between players’ expectations and reality, either positive or negative); Control (feeling in control: cognitions, emotions, behaviors, and outcomes; and appearing in control); Temporality (a perception that psycho-behavioral momentum cannot occur early in matches, sufficient match pressure and intensity is required to generate psycho-behavioral momentum); and Pressure (application and maintenance of psychological pressure upon opponent, and the management of pressure applied by opponent). Findings support existing conceptual models of momentum and extend the knowledgebase regarding how individuals experience momentum in competitive skill-based sports such as golf. Several strategies are suggested that could assist in building awareness of and managing psycho-behavioral momentum fluctuations. Lay Summary: Information from competitive Australian matchplay golfers during interviews and matches revealed four key contributors to experiencing positive and negative psycho-behavioral momentum during rounds of matchplay golf. These key contributors are unexpected events, feeling and appearing in control, how far the game has progressed, and applying and coping with pressure. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Psycho-behavioral momentum is an important aspect of applied sport psychology instruction and intervention. Sport psychology interventions aiming to enhance psycho-behavioral momentum, and thus performance, should support athletes to develop strategies that enhance feeling and appearing in control, along with skills to effectively manage psycho-behavioral momentum consequences of unexpected events. Sport psychology interventions should aim to build psycho-behavioral momentum early in competition, ideally building from training prior to events.

Can Learning Self-Regulatory Competencies Through a Guided Intervention Improve Coaches’ Burnout Symptoms and Well-Being?

While coaches are considered at risk of experiencing burnout, there is an absence of intervention studies addressing this syndrome. The purpose of this qualitative study was to conduct a self-regulation intervention with five Canadian developmental (n = 2) and elite (n = 3) sport coaches (three men, two women) experiencing moderate to high levels of burnout and examine the perceived impact of this intervention on their self-regulation capacity and experiences of burnout and well-being. The content analysis of the coaches’ outtake interviews and five bi-weekly journals revealed that all five of them learned to self-regulate more effectively by developing various competencies (e.g., strategic planning for their well-being, self-monitoring) and strategies (e.g., task delegation, facilitative self-talk). Four of the coaches also perceived improvements in their symptoms of burnout and well-being. Sport psychology interventions individualized for coaches are a promising means for helping them manage burnout and enhance their overall functioning.

Elite Athletes' Perspectives about the Importance of Psychological Preparation and Personal Experiences with Sport Psychology

Portuguese elite athletes with disabilities (n=14) were interviewed to explore the importance assigned to psychological preparation and their personal experiences on sport psychology. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using standard qualitative methodology. All the participants highlighted the importance of psychological preparation in sports performance. Moreover, it was evident a gap on applied sport psychology among the athletes. Most of the athletes never had any kind of psychological intervention for sport. Although some participants mentioned barriers to sport psychology intervention (e.g., athlete’s age, perception of psychological skills as innate characteristics, and the opinion of others), most of the athletes expressed receptiveness to engage in psychological skills training and stressed the need for that support. Some recommendations for future sport psychology interventions are presented as well as the study limitations.

The Transition From Sport Psychology to Psychotherapy: The Journey of a Young Athlete Fighting Cancer

The current case study reports an intervention with a young volleyball athlete who was diagnosed with cancer during his early sporting career. The athlete requested both performance-enhancement support and psychotherapeutic intervention (the latter during his illness) from his sport psychologist. The article explores the transition from sport psychology intervention, which started before the appearance of the disease, to psychotherapy and the reflections concerning this unique situation. The fluctuation of the athlete alongside the mental health continuum ranging from a normal (illness-free) state to a mental-illness state was taken into consideration. The theoretical framework adopted by the sport psychologist/psychotherapist consisted of the integration of different approaches: the psychobiosocial model of Individual Zone for Optimal Functioning and relational psychoanalysis, both oriented around the existentialism counseling approach. Reflections on the case include the changes of setting and the development of the relationship between the psychologist/psychotherapist and the athlete during the two intervention phases.

Development and Validation of a Monitoring Instrument for Sport Psychology Practice: The Sport Psychology Outcomes and Research Tool (SPORT)

Evidence for the mechanisms of change by which sport psychology interventions enhance performance is limited and treatment monitoring and outcomes measures would assist in establishing evidence-based practices. The present paper fills a gap in sport psychology literature by demonstrating the development and validation of a new measure (Sport Psychology Outcomes and Research Tool; SPORT). Study 1 described test construction and pilot item selection with 73 collegiate student-athletes. Twenty-three pilot items contributed unique variance while maintaining the original constructs and were selected from 80 initial items. In Study 2, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with collegiate student-athletes (n = 220), revealing a 17-item, four-factor model measuring Athlete Wellbeing, Self-Regulation, Performance Satisfaction, and Sport-Related Distress. Concurrent validity was supported through correlational analyses. Overall, results supported the SPORT as a new transtheoretical tool for monitoring effectiveness and outcomes of sport psychology interventions.

Enhancing Athlete Engagement in Sport Psychology Interventions Using Motivational Interviewing: A Case Study

Clear reporting of the counseling approach (and theoretical underpinning) applied by sport psychologists is often missing, with a tendency to focus on intervention content rather than therapeutic processes and relationship building. Well defined psychotherapies such as Motivational Interviewing (MI) can help fill this void and provide an underpinning counseling approach (in an athlete-centred manner) as a framework for delivering interventions such as psychological skills training (PST). This article describes the role of MI as a framework upon which PST sport psychology interventions can be mapped and delivered. The paper presents an athlete case study to explain the role of MI at each phase of the interaction. Robust, well-defined applications of MI in sport require further research although evidence from other psychological domains suggests that it can be successfully blended into sporting contexts.