Interplanetary Spacecraft Research Articles

Cytogenetic Violations in Blood Lymphocytes of Macaca Mulatta Monkeys in the Long Term after Irradiation with Accelerated Krypton Ions

A study has been performed of cytogenetic violations that occur in blood lymphocytes of Macaca mulatta monkeys after local exposure of the hippocampal region to accelerated 78Kr ions at a dose of 3 Gy. Analysis revealed a low level of chromosomal aberrations in the control group of monkeys. The number of cells with chromosomal aberrations did not exceed 1.67٪. The main fraction was chromatid-type aberrations. A cytogenetic analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes of monkeys exposed to accelerated krypton ions revealed the maximum level of chromosomal aberrations 24 h after exposure, which exceeded the control level by 2.7 times. By day 96, the number of aberrations decreased 1.7-fold. However, it still exceeded the control level. By 460 days, some animals showed a slight increase in the number of aberrations compared to the previous observation period. In the long term, a number of irradiated animals showed deviations from the standard behavior of monkeys. Data on chromosomal aberrations in blood lymphocytes of monkeys and humans after in vitro irradiation with 170 MeV protons are compared. The relevance of this research is due to the preparation of interplanetary manned flights.

Synergistic Interactions among Vacuum, Solar Heating, and UV Irradiation Enhance the Lethality of Interplanetary Space

A Planetary Atmospheric Chamber (PAC) was used to create simulations of interplanetary conditions to test the spore survival of three Bacillus spp. exposed to interacting conditions of vacuum (VAC), simulated solar heating (HEAT), and simulated solar ultraviolet irradiation (UV). Synergism was observed among the experimental factors for all three Bacillus spp. tested that suggested the increased lethality of HEAT and UV when concomitantly exposed to VAC. The most aggressive biocidal effects were observed for assays with VAC + HEAT + UV conditions run simultaneously over short time-steps. The results were used to predict the accumulation of extremely rapid Sterility Assurance Levels (SALs; def., −12 logs of bioburden reduction) measured in a few minutes to a few hours for external surfaces of interplanetary spacecraft. Furthermore, the results were extrapolated to predict that approx. 1 × 104 SAL exposures might be accumulated for external surfaces on the Europa Clipper spacecraft during a 3.5-year transit time between Venus (0.7 AU) and Mars (1.5 AU) during a series of Venus–Earth–Earth gravity assists (VEEGA trajectory) to Jovian space. The results are applicable to external spacecraft surfaces exposed to direct solar heating and UV irradiation during transits though the inner solar system.

Review of Solar Sail Propulsion Mechanisms and Missions for Space Travel

Since solar sailing employs the speed of sunlight to drive spacecraft, it is an efficient and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional propulsion technologies. The physics of photon compression, the significance of novel materials and systems that enhance sailing performance, and the appropriate testing of solar sailing systems are all covered in this research paper. The main solar sailing projects— LightSail, NEA Scout, and IKAROS—are examined in this paper, and their merits, demerits, and contributions to the field are discussed. Potential solar sailing technology for extended space travel are also covered, along with space sustainability. Consider how crucial it is for space exploration in the future. The goal of this research is to demonstrate the transformative potential of navigation and to spark further developments in the exciting field of space aerospace engineering by effectively integrating mission data and current research in the ever-changing landscape of space exploration. Since solar sailing employs the speed of sunlight to drive spacecraft, it is a practical and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional propulsion technologies. The physics of photon compression, the significance of novel materials and systems that enhance sailing performance, and the appropriate testing of solar sailing systems are all covered in this research paper. The main solar sailing projects—LightSail, NEA Scout, and IKAROS—are examined in this paper, and their merits, demerits, and contributions to the field are discussed. Potential solar sailing technology for extended space travel are also covered, along with space sustainability. Pay attention to how crucial it is for future space exploration. Through the efficient integration of mission data and current research, this project seeks to address the dynamic landscape of space exploration in the industry and encourage future advancements in the exciting field of space aeronautical engineering. Additionally, it aims to illustrate how navigation can have a transforming effect. Keywords: Space Exploration, Propulsion Technology, Interstellar Travel, Spacecraft Navigation, Attitude control, Trajectory optimization, Material Durability, Deep Space Missions, Interplanetary Travel, Solar Radiation Effect, Photon Pressure, Solar sail Deployment, Orbital Mechanics, Continues Thrust.

Computer modeling of a new type galactic cosmic rays simulator

A new type of a galactic cosmic rays (GCR) simulator, provided at the JINR Laboratory of Radiation Biology, is potentially capable of generating a complex radiation field with inclusions of a variety of ions with a wide energy range and with required abundance at the charged particle accelerators. This complex multicomponent radiation field simulates radiation environment inside a spacecraft during an interplanetary flight, for example, to Mars. The article provides an analytical description of the GCR simulator as well as a description of a specially developed software that enables selection of necessary parameters of a simulator model for creating relevant mixed radiation conditions. The software implements processing of data obtained with Monte Carlo-based FLUKA and PHITS programs, fitting and optimization of model parameters as well as data visualization tools.

Modification of the turbulence properties at the bow shock: statistical results

Turbulent solar wind is known to be a main driver of the processes inside the magnetosphere, including geomagnetic storms and substorms. Experimental studies of the last decade demonstrate additional ways of interplanetary plasma transport to the magnetosphere, including small-scale processes in the magnetosphere boundary layers. This fact implies that properties of the solar wind turbulence can affect the geomagnetic activity. However, in front of the magnetosphere are a bow shock and a magnetosheath region which contribute to the changes in the properties of the solar wind turbulence and may result in destructions of the association between solar wind turbulence and the magnetosphere. The present study provides the statistics of two-point simultaneous measurements of the turbulence properties in the solar wind and the magnetosheath based on Wind and THEMIS spacecraft data. Changes in the turbulence properties are analyzed for different background conditions. Solar wind bulk speed and temperature are shown to be the main factors that influence the modification of turbulence at the quasi-perpendicular bow shock at frequencies higher than the break frequency (ion transition range). Inside the magnetosheath, significant steepening of spectra occurs with an increase in temperature anisotropy without a connection to the upstream spectrum scaling that underlines the crucial role of the instabilities in turbulence properties behind the bow shock.

Experimental Thrust and Specific Impulse Analysis of Pulsed Detonation Combustor

Detonation combustion represents a significant advancement in efficiency over traditional deflagration methods. This paper presents a Pulsed Detonation Combustor (PDC) model that is designed with an aerodynamic mixing chamber featuring Hartmann–Sprenger resonators and crossflow injection. This design enhances operational cycle frequency and enables sustained detonation over short distances (below 200 mm). The PDC’s performance was evaluated through a comprehensive full-factorial experimental campaign, incorporating four factors with four discrete levels each. Testing was conducted using both hydrogen/air and hydrogen/oxygen mixtures, highlighting the PDC’s potential as a carbon-free combustion chamber suitable for both air-breathing and space-based propulsion systems. One advantage is the versatility of our PDC breadboard, which lies in its applicability to both terrestrial and in-space applications, such as interplanetary travel or trajectory corrections. Thrust measurements were recorded using a load cell and time-averaged thrust levels were determined over the detonation cycle and are reported herein, together with the specific impulse. The results underscore the PDC’s promise as an efficient propulsion technology for future aerospace applications.

Trajectory Approximation of a Low-Performance E-Sail with Fixed Orientation

The Electric Solar Wind Sail (E-sail) is a propellantless propulsion system that converts solar wind dynamic pressure into a deep-space thrust through a grid of long conducting tethers. The first flight test, needed to experience the true potential of the E-sail concept, is likely to be carried out using a single spinning cable deployed from a small satellite, such as a CubeSat. This specific configuration poses severe limitations to both the performance and the maneuverability of the spacecraft used to analyze the actual in situ thruster capabilities. In fact, the direction of the spin axis in a single-tether configuration can be considered fixed in an inertial reference frame, so that the classic sail pitch angle is no longer a control variable during the interplanetary flight. This paper aims to determine the polar form of the propelled trajectory and the characteristics of the osculating orbit of a spacecraft propelled by a low-performance spinning E-sail with an inertially fixed axis of rotation. Assuming that the spacecraft starts the trajectory from a parking orbit that coincides with the Earth’s heliocentric orbit and that its spin axis belongs to the plane of the ecliptic, a procedure is illustrated to solve the problem accurately with a set of simple analytical relations.

Developing a Three-Dimensional Bubble Dynamics Model for Centrifugal Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

Nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) is a highly efficient type of propulsion system that could yield a specific impulse up to 800 s. High-performance NTP allows for possibilities of various mission types from flyby to interplanetary flight, manned or unmanned. Centrifugal nuclear thermal propulsion (CNTP) is a type of NTP that uses liquid fissile material instead of a solid core in a standard reactor configuration. CNTP requires an interaction between liquid fissile fuel and gaseous propellant to perform heat transfer and generate thrust in a spinning enclosure. Because of the liquid state of the fissile fuel, it is essential to monitor bubble behavior and trajectory. For example, the bubble dwell time within the liquid and hydrogen flow rates can influence the liquid volume fraction and volume, which in turn can affect reactivity. A model is developed and presented that, as it matures, will predict the bubbles’ behavior based on the various types of liquid and gas and their corresponding properties as well as assist in cross-validation with the concurring experiment. The model primarily utilizes the smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH) approach to simulate the liquid and gas interaction within the design space. The physics include buoyancy and drag on the bubbles. The pressure field within the liquid is modeled using hydrostatics, in which centrifugal motion introduces a radial gradient. Boundary conditions are devised to confine the liquid and gas within the enclosure. In this paper, we present the progress to date in two centrifugal fuel element–relevant subscale devices, the so-called “Antfarm” and “Blender II.” Antfarm is a static stage in a rectangular enclosure where buoyancy is purely gravity driven. Blender II refers to a rectangular enclosure that spins at up to 7000 rpm. Both Antfarm and Blender II are experiments that provide important data for validation against our SPH model. Two liquid and gas combinations are modeled in the present study using the Antfarm setup: water-air, and Galinstan-Nitrogen. The bubbles’ behavior was comparable to the experiment, and the velocity was at the same order of magnitude. The liquid simulation performed for the Blender II model shows that the pressure gradient within the liquid in the radial direction matches that predicted analytically from the centrifugal acceleration. The Blender II liquid model awaits experimental data for validation and verification.

Ulysses spacecraft in situ detections of cometary dust trails.

The Ulysses spacecraft was launched in 1990 and, after a Jupiter swing-by in 1992, became the first interplanetary spacecraft orbiting the Sun on a highly inclined trajectory with an inclination of [Formula: see text]. The spacecraft was equipped with an impact ionization dust detector which provided 17 years of in situ dust measurements in interplanetary space from 1990 to 2007. Cometary meteoroid streams (also referred to as trails) exist along the orbits of comets, forming fine structures of the interplanetary dust cloud. We use the Interplanetary Meteoroid Environment for eXploration (IMEX) dust streams in space model (Soja RH et al. 2015 Characteristics of the dust trail of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko: an application of the IMEX model. Astron. Astrophys. 583, A18. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526184)) to predict cometary stream traverses by Ulysses and re-analyse the Ulysses dust dataset in order to identify impacts of cometary stream particles detected during such trail traverses. We identify 19 particles compatible with three Ulysses trail traverses on 12 March 1995, 25-27 April 2001 and 16-19 May 2001. The particle origin is compatible with up to five comets, i.e. 10P/Tempel 2, 146P/Shoemaker-LINEAR, 267P/LONEOS and possibly 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdušáková and P/1999 RO28 (LONEOS). We find a dust spatial density in these trails of approximately [Formula: see text]. The radii of the detected cometary stream particles derived from the dust instrument calibration are in the micrometre range. The in situ analysis of meteoroid trail particles in space, which can be traced back to their source bodies, opens a new opportunity for remote compositional analysis of comets and asteroids without the necessity to send a spacecraft to or even land on these celestial bodies, opening new opportunities for future space missions equipped with in situ dust analyzers. This article is part of the theme issue 'Dust in the Solar System and beyond'.

An approach for end-to-end optimization of low-thrust interplanetary trajectories using collinear libration points

This article presents an approach to solve the problem of end-to-end optimization of the low-thrust interplanetary trajectory. At first, the problem of optimizing low-thrust interplanetary trajectory, which passes through the collinear libration points near the planets of departure and arrival is considered. The obtained solutions from this problem can be used as an initial guess to solve the end-to-end optimization problem, i.e., to calculate interplanetary low-thrust trajectories that satisfy the necessary optimality conditions at the match points of the heliocentric and planetocentric segments of trajectory. The minimum-fuel problem is considered. An indirect method based on the maximum principle, and the continuation method is applied to optimize interplanetary spacecraft trajectories. Numerical examples of trajectories from the Earth orbit to the orbit around the destination planet (Mars and Jupiter) are given. The possibility of a significant reduction in the required characteristic velocity is shown in comparison with the estimates obtained by using the zero-radius sphere of influence model.

Spacecraft Medium Voltage Direct-Current (MVDC) Power and Propulsion System

This paper introduces a medium voltage direct-current (MVDC) system for large spacecraft megawatt-scale (MW) power and propulsion systems intended for interplanetary transport, including missions to the Moon and Mars. The proposed MVDC system includes: (i) A nuclear electric propulsion (NEP) that powers a permanent magnet (PM) generator whose output is rectified and connected to the MVDC bus. (ii) A solar photovoltaic (PV) source that is interfaced to the MVDC bus using a unidirectional boost DC-DC converter. (iii) A backup battery energy storage system (BESS) that connects to the MVDC bus using a bidirectional DC-DC boost converter. (iv) A dual active bridge (DAB) converter that controls the power to the spacecraft’s electric thruster. The NEP serves as the main power source for the spacecraft’s electric thruster, while the solar PV and BESS are intended to provide power for the payload and spacecraft’s low-voltage power system. The paper will (i) provide a review of the spacecraft MVDC power and prolusion system highlighting state-of-the-art main components, (ii) address the control of boost converters for the PV and BESS sources and the DAB converter for the thruster, and (iii) propose an uncertainty and disturbance estimator (UDE) concept based on current control algorithms to mitigate MVDC instability due to unpredictable factors and external disruptions. The proposed UDE can actively estimate and compensate for the system disturbance and uncertainty in real time, and thus, both the system tracking performance and robustness can be improved. Simulation studies have been conducted to substantiate the efficacy of the proposed schemes.

Statistical Reliability Analysis of Interplanetary Spacecraft Operating at Different Interplanetary Extremity

The success of spacecraft depends on their reliability which is influenced by the space environment complexity. This study examines the reliability of interplanetary spacecraft in different regions. We focused on spacecraft in interplanetary space, specifically within the interplanetary boundary. Our analysis excluded planetary landers, probes, and satellites in Earth orbit. 131 spacecraft were studied, with data on launch mass and lifespan recorded. Non-parametric analysis was initially conducted, followed by parametric analysis using the Weibull Distribution. Results showed higher reliability for spacecraft beyond Earth and Mars extremities. Analyses were also done based on spacecraft mass categories to validate reliability effects. Various factors affecting reliability were discussed, including design, integration processes, testing methodologies, and mass constraints.

Ultrasound Biomicroscopy as a Novel, Potential Modality to Evaluate Anterior Segment Ophthalmic Structures during Spaceflight: An Analysis of Current Technology.

Ocular health is currently a major concern for astronauts on current and future long-duration spaceflight missions. Spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS) is a collection of ophthalmic and neurologic findings that is one potential physiologic barrier to interplanetary spaceflight. Since its initial report in 2011, our understanding of SANS has advanced considerably, with a primary focus on posterior ocular imaging including fundus photography and optical coherence tomography. However, there may be changes to the anterior segment that have not been identified. Additional concerns to ocular health in space include corneal damage and radiation-induced cataract formation. Given these concerns, precision anterior segment imaging of the eye would be a valuable addition to future long-duration spaceflights. The purpose of this paper is to review ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) and its potential as a noninvasive, efficient imaging modality for spaceflight. The analysis of UBM for spaceflight is not well defined in the literature, and such technology may help to provide further insights into the overall anatomical changes in the eye in microgravity.

Electric Sail Test Cube–Lunar Nanospacecraft, ESTCube-LuNa: Solar Wind Propulsion Demonstration Mission Concept

The electric solar wind sail, or E-sail, is a propellantless interplanetary propulsion system concept. By deflecting solar wind particles off their original course, it can generate a propulsive effect with nothing more than an electric charge. The high-voltage charge is applied to one or multiple centrifugally deployed hair-thin tethers, around which an electrostatic sheath is created. Electron emitters are required to compensate for the electron current gathered by the tether. The electric sail can also be utilised in low Earth orbit, or LEO, when passing through the ionosphere, where it serves as a plasma brake for deorbiting—several missions have been dedicated to LEO demonstration. In this article, we propose the ESTCube-LuNa mission concept and the preliminary cubesat design to be launched into the Moon’s orbit, where the solar wind is uninterrupted, except for the lunar wake and when the Moon is in the Earth’s magnetosphere. This article introduces E-sail demonstration experiments and the preliminary payload design, along with E-sail thrust validation and environment characterisation methods, a cis-lunar cubesat platform solution and an early concept of operations. The proposed lunar nanospacecraft concept is designed without a deep space network, typically used for lunar and deep space operations. Instead, radio telescopes are being repurposed for communications and radio frequency ranging, and celestial optical navigation is developed for on-board orbit determination.

The Future of Space Exploration

This research study conducts a complete analysis of the diverse future of space travel by tying together historical legacies, current dynamics, and potential paths. The study covers the current era, looking at significant turning events, technological advancements, the influence of commercial groups, and the growing space tourism industry. By discussing upcoming space missions, technological developments that may revolutionise space travel, the difficulties of international collaboration, and the implications for society, future directions are demonstrated. As we examine the problems of technical advancements, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability, suggested solutions emerge, demonstrating the field's adaptability to changing circumstances.[2] Examined are the moral and social repercussions of human existence away from Earth, emphasising the importance of international inclusivity and collaboration. The study's conclusion emphasises the value of continuous adaptation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and a shared commitment to responsible discovery with an eye towards the future. The exciting future of space travel will be determined by sustained study, policy development, and a shared vision for humanity's cosmic trip.[4] Key Words: — Space exploration, future trends, historical milestones, technological advancements, private space entities, space tourism, upcoming missions, interplanetary travel, international collaboration, societal implications, ethical considerations, sustainability, economic viability, interdisciplinary research, cultural contributions, global governance, continuous adaptation.

Navigating the Challenges of 3D Printing Personalized Medicine in Space Explorations: A Comprehensive Review.

Space exploration has undergone a paradigm shift in recent years, with a growing emphasis on long-duration missions and human habitation on other celestial bodies. Private aerospace businesses are at the forefront of advancing the next iteration of spacecraft, encompassing a wide range of applications such as deep space exploration (e.g., SpaceX) and cost-effective satellite deployments (e.g., Rocketlab). One of the critical challenges associated with prolonged space missions is the provision of personalized medical care. 3D printing technology has emerged as a potential solution, enabling the on-demand production of personalized medical devices and medications. However, the unique conditions of space pose substantial challenges to the successful implementation of 3D printing for personalized medicine. Tremendous scope for research exists in terms of resource utilization and waste management in space ecosystem, robotic and artificial intelligence (AI) enabled tool utilization, remote operability, interplanetary travel, space education and training tools, digital twins, space tourism and in many other aspects of 3D printing for personalized medicine in space explorations.

High-Reliability and High-Precision Braking and Capture Control Technology of Tianwen-1 Probe

The Tianwen-1 probe, used in China’s first Mars exploration mission, features multiple flight phases, numerous spatial pointing constraints, and complex working modes. During the braking and capture process, it faces challenges such as uplink or downlink command delay, unique capture window, post-control “occultation”, short-time significant change in speed increment, and interference caused by low-frequency and low-damping solid–liquid flexible coupling oscillations. Therefore, high reliability, high autonomy, and high precision are required for the braking and capture process. As the executor of braking and capture control, the GNC (guidance, navigation, and control) subsystem of the orbiter employs an online orbit control strategy reconstruction method based on arc loss compensation to realize high reliability, the main engine anomaly recognition and a seamless switching scheme to realize high autonomy, and the attitude–orbit coupling control algorithm with thrust direction compensation to realize high-precision speed increment control. According to the on-orbit flight validation of the Tianwen-1 probe, the GNC subsystem of the orbiter has completed the braking and capture control task reliably and autonomously with millimeter-per-second-level accuracy, effectively ensuring the successful execution of subsequent landing and patrol tasks. This paper analyzes the online orbit control strategy reconstruction method, anomaly recognition and seamless switching method, and thrust vector control method of the braking and capture process and offers valuable insights for future interplanetary exploration flight control.

Двухуровневый параметрический метод оптимизации траектории перелета с малой тягой

A direct method is proposed for solving the optimal control problem of a spacecraft equipped with a low-thrust engine. The control function is parameterized using polynomials and switching moments between active and passive control modes. The essence of the method lies in separating optimization parameters: at the outer level, the switching time moments of control modes are optimized, while at the inner level, the coefficients of auxiliary polynomials are optimized. The method’s performance is demonstrated on problems of interplanetary flight to Mars and the conversion of impulse control to continuous control.

Exploring advanced nuclear fusion techniques for interplanetary travel

Exploring advanced nuclear fusion techniques for interplanetary travel

The Alembic, The Pen… And The Spacecraft. De la Follie’s Le philosophe sans prétention (1775): An Early Sci-Fi Novel in Lieu of a Successful Scientific Lecture?

Louis-Guillaume de la Follie’s novel Le philosophe sans prétention, ou l’homme rare (The philosopher without pretension, or the rare man, 1775) is remembered for including the first interplanetary travel on a spaceship powered by electricity. The story, a philosophical tale typical of the Age of Enlightenment, is used by the author to convey his scientific views and popularise scientific issues. Hence, de la Follie’s work sheds light on the dissemination of scientific knowledge within French society in the second half of the eighteenth century. The article aims to show how Le philosophe serves as a bridge between the Enlightenment philosophical fiction and science fiction to determine to which extent could literature be a vehicle for disseminating scientific ideas. The study aims to be a useful contribution to a deeper knowledge of eighteenth-century provincial French scientific milieu and its links with literature. The article encompasses the introduction of the author, his work, and its reception, its examination as a conte philosophique, an early science-fiction novel, and the discussion.