Interpersonal Vulnerability Factors Research Articles

Hyperarousal symptoms and perceived burdensomeness interact to predict suicidal ideation among trauma-exposed individuals

The association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and suicidal ideation is well-established and recent prospective studies have demonstrated the unique role of hyperarousal symptoms. In particular, over-arousal may elevate suicide risk in the presence of interpersonal vulnerability factors including thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and acquired capability. Therefore, the current study sought to examine the differential associations between PTSD symptom clusters and suicidality and the impact of interpersonal risk factors. Trauma-exposed adults (N = 247) completed a questionnaire battery at baseline and three-month follow-up, as part of a larger randomized controlled trial of computerized interventions for suicide risk. Given the focus of the current study, treatment condition was controlled for in all analyses. Results indicated that hyperarousal symptoms significantly predict suicidality, while reexperiencing and avoidance symptoms do not. Specifically, greater hyperarousal symptoms predicted increased suicidal ideation among individuals with high perceived burdensomeness. Although the interaction effect was not significant, hyperarousal symptoms were also pertinent among individuals with high acquired capability. Taken together, findings suggest that assessment of hyperarousal symptoms and perceived burdensomeness may serve to identify trauma-exposed individuals at greater risk for suicide. Additionally, these factors may serve as effective intervention targets.

Interpersonal predictors of stress generation: Isthere a super factor?

Hammen's (1991, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555-561) seminal paper on stress generation highlighted the reciprocal relationship between stress and depression. Not only does stress predict depression, but women with a diagnosis of depression also experienced subsequent increased levels of stress. In the ensuing years, depression researchers have moved beyond clinical predictors and examined whether depression vulnerability factors also contribute to stress generation. This interest has led to a growing focus on interpersonal vulnerability factors that contribute to stress generation. To date, the research examining interpersonal predictors of stress generation has tended to examine vulnerability factors singly and thus potential overlap and unique predictions amongvulnerability factors have not been determined. This study examines interpersonal vulnerability factors from various schools of thought (dependency, attachment, and unmitigated communion) as predictors of interpersonal stress generation. Three hundred and sixty-four young adults completed baseline measures of interpersonal vulnerabilities and provided weekly reports of depressive symptoms and stressful life events. Multilevel models were estimated to examine their unique predictions of interpersonal stress generation. Despite converging theories, there does not appear to be a single super factor. Of the interpersonal vulnerability factors tested, anxious attachment emerged as a consistent predictor of interpersonal stress generation both when examined singly and when in combination with related variables.

Vulnerability-specific stress generation: Childhood emotional abuse and the mediating role of depressogenic interpersonal processes

Stress generation in depression (i.e. the tendency for depression-prone individuals to experience more life stress that is in part influenced by the individual) has been well established. However, more research is necessary to clarify the role of specific types of life stress in this effect. The current study extends the stress generation hypothesis by examining whether the type of stress involved is contingent upon the nature of the individual’s particular vulnerability. Childhood emotional abuse and interpersonal vulnerability factors were predicted to be associated with prospective interpersonal dependent but not non-interpersonal or independent stress. These interpersonal factors were examined as mediators of the association between childhood emotional abuse and interpersonal stress generation. Data were collected from 185 undergraduate participants at two time-points, four months apart. At baseline, participants completed assessments of depressive symptoms, childhood abuse history, interpersonal risk factors (rejection sensitivity, excessive reassurance-seeking, and negative feedback-seeking), and a diagnostic interview for depression. At the follow-up assessment, participants completed a life stress interview. Childhood emotional abuse prospectively predicted greater interpersonal dependent stress, but not non-interpersonal dependent or independent stress. Only rejection sensitivity mediated this relationship. Consistent with the stress generation hypothesis, neither childhood emotional abuse nor the three interpersonal risk factors predicted independent stress. These findings suggest that targeting interpersonal vulnerabilities in clinical settings, particularly rejection sensitivity, among individuals with a history of childhood emotional abuse, may help to reduce the occurrence of interpersonal dependent stress, thus possibly decreasing risk for depression.

Identifying Cognitive and Interpersonal Predictors of Adolescent Depression

Emerging research has begun to examine cognitive and interpersonal predictors of stress and subsequent depression in adolescents. This research is critical as cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors likely shape expectations, perspectives, and interpretations of a given situation prior to the onset of a stressor. In the current study, adolescents (n = 157; boys=64, girls=93), ages 12 to 18, participated in a 6-month, multi-wave longitudinal study examining the impact of negative cognitive style, self-criticism, and dependency on stress and depression. Results of time-lagged, idiographic multilevel analyses indicate that depressogenic attributional styles (i.e., composite score and weakest link approach) and self-criticism predict dependent interpersonal, but not noninterpersonal stress. Moreover, the occurrence of stress mediates the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and depressive symptoms over time. At the same time, self-criticism predicts above and beyond depressogenic attributional styles (i.e., composite and weakest link approach). In contrast to our hypotheses, dependency does not contribute to the occurrence of stress, and additionally, no gender differences emerge. Taken together, the findings suggest that self-criticism may be a particularly damaging vulnerability factor in adolescence, and moreover, it may warrant greater attention in the context of psychotherapeutic interventions.

Submissive interpersonal style mediates the effect of brooding on future depressive symptoms

Theoretical models and empirical evidence suggest that brooding, the maladaptive sub-component of depressive rumination, is associated with a sub-set of depressogenic interpersonal difficulties characterised by submissive interpersonal behaviours and rejection sensitivity. This study tested whether these cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors independently predicted future depression and investigated their interdependence in predicting depression. A heterogeneous adult sample completed self-report measures assessing depressive symptoms, brooding, reflection, rejection sensitivity and maladaptive interpersonal behaviours, at baseline and six months later. When examined separately, brooding and an interpersonal component reflecting submissive, (overly-accommodating, non-assertive, and self-sacrificing) interpersonal behaviours each prospectively predicted increased depressive symptoms six months later, after controlling for baseline depressive symptoms and gender. When examined together, the submissive interpersonal style but not brooding predicted depression, indicating that this maladaptive interpersonal style may mediate the effect of brooding on future depression. Thus, the effects of brooding on depression may in part depend on its association with an interpersonal style characterised by submissiveness.

Cognitive and Interpersonal Predictors of Stress Generation in Children of Affectively Ill Parents

Stress generation is a process in which individuals, through their depressive symptoms, personal characteristics, and/or behaviors, contribute to the occurrence of stressful life events. While this process has been well documented in adults, few studies have examined it in children. The present study examines whether cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression contribute to stress generation in children, independent of their current depressive symptoms. Participants included 140 children (ages 6 to 14) and one of their parents. During an initial assessment, children completed self-report measures assessing cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression. Children and their parents also completed measures assessing depressive symptoms. One year later, children and their parents participated in a semi-structured interview assessing the occurrence of stressful life events in the past year. Multi-level modeling results provided strong support for the stress generation process in children of affectively ill parents and highlight the importance of considering gender and age moderation effects.

Predicting onset of depression: the Vulnerability to Depression Questionnaire.

The development of a self-report questionnaire capable of assessing cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors for clinical depression is described. The Vulnerability to Depression Questionnaire (VDQ) was developed to provide a brief, economical alternative to the Self-Evaluation and Social Support interview (SESS; O'Connor & Brown, 1984), assessing negative evaluation of self, negative interaction with partner or child and lack of a support figure. The VDQ was tested in a prospective study of community-based women who were contacted on three occasions over the course of approximately 1 year, to: (i) compare the VDQ's capacity to categorize vulnerability compared with the SESS interview, and (ii) to test the VDQ's prediction of onset of clinical depression during the follow-up. Selected nondepressed respondents completed the VDQ and were interviewed to determine their vulnerability using the SESS. They were re-interviewed on two further occasions during the follow-up period, and the VDQ was also re-administered at the time of first follow-up. Onset of clinical depression during the follow-up was assessed by interview at each contact. Comparison of VDQ and SESS interview classification of participants' vulnerability at first contact indicated that the questionnaire had good sensitivity and specificity. Test-retest scores for the VDQ indicated satisfactory levels of reliability. VDQ scores also predicted onset of clinical depression in the follow-up period. Results suggest that the VDQ is an economical and effective means of screening large populations for the purposes of risk assessment, to aid future research into clinical depression and to facilitate the implementation of intervention strategies.

Reassurance seeking, stress generation, and depressive symptoms: an integrative model.

The purpose of this study was to examine a mechanism through which interpersonal vulnerability factors may be linked with depressive symptoms by integrating a stress-generation model with an interpersonal theory of depression. The proposed conceptual framework was tested with 267 college students in a prospective structural equation model with 3 assessments over a 5-week period. Results supported all hypotheses. Initial depressive symptoms and initial reassurance seeking style were positively associated, and initial depressive symptoms were positively related to the occurrence of subsequent minor social stressors. Finally, a reassurance-seeking style was positively related to outcome depressive symptoms indirectly through minor social stressors. As predicted, stress generation operated as a mediating mechanism linking an initial reassurance-seeking style to subsequent depressive symptoms.