Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Research Articles

Why do we engage in everyday interpersonal emotion regulation?

Interpersonal emotion regulation occurs when people influence others' emotions (extrinsic regulation) or turn to others to influence their own emotions (intrinsic regulation). Research on interpersonal regulation has tended to focus on how people regulate emotions, with little interrogation of why people do it, despite the importance of motives in driving emotion regulation goals and strategy selection. To fill this gap, we conducted a systematic exploration of interpersonal emotion regulation motives, employing a participant-driven approach to document the breadth of motives that people hold across different social contexts. Study 1a (N = 100) provided an initial qualitative examination of motives for both intrinsic and extrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation. Study 1b (N = 399) quantitatively catalogued these motives in recalled social interactions. Study 2 (N = 200), a daily diary study, used the motive taxonomy generated in Studies 1a and 1b to understand why people regulated their own and others' emotions in everyday social interactions over the course of 14 days. Together, our findings reveal the diversity of intrinsic and extrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation motives and open avenues to further explore motives both as a precursor to and an outcome of regulatory processes in daily life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for Why Do We Engage in Everyday Interpersonal Emotion Regulation?

Supplemental Material for Why Do We Engage in Everyday Interpersonal Emotion Regulation?

Supplemental Material for Why Do We Engage in Everyday Interpersonal Emotion Regulation?

Supplemental Material for Why Do We Engage in Everyday Interpersonal Emotion Regulation?

The development and validation of the Emotional Entitlement Questionnaire (EEQ).

Beliefs about what one is entitled to emotionally may make a unique contribution to emotional and interpersonal experiences. In the present study, we introduce the concept of emotional entitlement, the degree to which people believe they have the right to experience different emotions (e.g., the right to feel happy, angry, sad, etc.). Our aim was to develop and validate the Emotional Entitlement Questionnaire (EEQ). In the first study (N = 200), we constructed a three-factor, 15-item EEQ, in Hebrew. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of emotional entitlement to positive emotions (EEP), emotional entitlement to negative emotions (EEN), and the maladaptive aspect of emotional entitlement which we termed uncompromised emotional entitlement (EEU). The second study (N = 672) replicated this three-factor structure in a new independent sample and established test-retest reliability using two timepoints. In the third study (N = 495), we translated the EEQ into English and replicated the three-factor structure in another independent sample while establishing initial validity using the entitlement questionnaire, the positive and negative affect schedule, and the interpersonal emotion regulation questionnaire. Different dimensions of the EEQ were related to different levels of life satisfaction and loneliness, above and beyond the contribution of global entitlement. Overall, we would suggest that EEP represents an adaptive aspect of emotional entitlement, EEU represents a maladaptive aspect, and EEN has both adaptive and maladaptive aspects. The results indicate that emotional entitlement is a multidimensional construct and that the EEQ is a reliable and valid tool with good psychometric properties. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Interpersonal emotion regulation and physiological synchrony: cognitive reappraisal versus expressive suppression

ABSTRACT The present study aimed to explore the effectiveness of two typical intrapersonal strategies (cognitive reappraisal, CR; expressive suppression, ES) on interpersonal emotion regulation (IER), and uncover the physiological synchrony pattern underlying this. A sample of 90 friend dyads (N = 180) was randomly assigned to the CR, the ES, or the control group. In each dyad, the target underwent a negative emotional task (induce sadness by recalling a negative event), and the regulator was assigned to implement the CR strategy, the ES strategy, or no action to down-regulate the targets’ negative emotions. Self-reported results showed that compared to the control group, both CR and ES strategies decreased the targets’ negative emotions, and increased the targets’ positive emotions, indicating a successful IER effect. And the ECG results revealed that relative to the control condition, both CR and ES strategies evoked stronger physiological synchrony (heart rate synchrony and heart rate variation synchrony) during the emotion regulation stage of IER. Overall, these findings demonstrated the similar efficacy of reappraisal and suppression strategies implemented by the regulators to improve the targets’ negative emotions, and suggested that the physiological synchrony might have an important relational meaning during the IER process.

Loneliness and shyness from the perspective of emotion regulation

Research aim: Loneliness and shyness are two of our increasing psychological problems today. It is considered important to understand how emotion regulation dimensions affect these two problem areas, as one of the main factors underlying our psychological problems. In this study, it was aimed to determine how both intra and interpersonal emotion regulation strategies and difficulties in emotion regulation predict loneliness and shyness. Method: For this aim, it was carried out with the participation of 462 people (58.4% women and 41.6% men; Rage:18-69; Mage: 28.08) from two different countries, Turkey (51.5%) and Pakistan (48.5%). It is quantitative research and descriptive and relational analyzes were made. Findings: When the findings were examined, it was found that difficulties in emotion regulation predicted both loneliness and shyness. In terms of emotion regulation strategies, while ‘expressive suppression’ and ‘social modelling’ predicts loneliness; ‘expressive suppression’ and ‘enhancing positive affect’ seem to predict shyness. It was found that other emotion regulation strategies did not predict statistically significantly. In addition, the findings obtained according to the relevant demographic variables (according to gender, country, being in a romantic relationship, having a child/children) and emotion regulation strategies were discussed in the context of the relevant literature. Conclusions: As a result of the study, it was seen that there are emotion regulation types and strategies associated with loneliness and shyness.

Psychological care for cancer survivors: a 2 × 2 model of interpersonal emotion regulation by caregivers.

Psychological care for cancer survivors: a 2 × 2 model of interpersonal emotion regulation by caregivers.

The development of a novel scale to assess intra- and interpersonal emotion regulation strategies: The Emotion Regulation Strategy Scale (ERSS).

Existing emotion regulation research focuses on how individuals use different strategies to manage their own emotions-also called intra-personal emotion regulation. However, people often leverage connections with others to regulate their own emotions-interpersonal emotion regulation. The goal of the present studies was to develop a comprehensive and efficient scale-the Emotion Regulation Strategies Scale (ERSS)-to assess nine specific emotion regulation strategies that individuals use both intra-personally and interpersonally. These emotion regulation strategies were cognitive reappraisal, distraction, situation selection, problem solving, acceptance, calming, savoring, rumination, and expressive suppression. Data were collected between 2020 and 2022. Study 1 adopted a qualitative approach to establish original scale items. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 confirmed a nine-factor solution for both the intra- and the interpersonal scales and finalized scale items. A second confirmatory factor analysis in Study 3 found the ERSS for both the intra-personal and interpersonal scale models to possess good model fit. Correlations from Study 3 showed the ERSS subscales to be related in expected ways to existing emotion regulation scales, yet not redundant with these scales. The degree to which individuals used the range of intra- and interpersonal emotion regulation strategies assessed on the ERSS also related to the levels of clinical symptoms. The ERSS represents a comprehensive novel scale that can flexibly assess a range of specific emotion regulation strategies used both intra- and interpersonally. Future work should be conducted using the ERSS cross culturally and in clinical samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Empathy is associated with interpersonal emotion regulation goals in everyday life.

Responding to the emotions of the people around us is a phenomenon traversing human lives; however, research has only recently started exploring the predictors of interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). In two ecological momentary assessment studies conducted in 2021 and 2022, we tested whether facets of empathy (i.e., mentalizing, experience sharing, empathic concern, and personal distress) are associated with other-focused IER goals and their attainment in everyday life (Ns = 125 and 204). Study 1 examined associations between mentalizing, experience sharing, and global hedonic and counter-hedonic IER goals (i.e., making others feel better or worse) in a relatively young and predominantly female student sample in Germany. Study 2 expanded these findings to empathic concern, personal distress, and specific types of hedonic and counter-hedonic IER goals (i.e., increasing, decreasing, and/or maintaining others' positive and/or negative emotions) in a more diverse U.S. community sample. Participants primarily endorsed hedonic IER goals, which were associated with higher mentalizing and experience sharing in both studies and higher empathic concern and lower personal distress in Study 2. Counter-hedonic IER goals were positively associated with experience sharing and personal distress in Study 2. Conversely, empathic concern and mentalizing were negatively related to counter-hedonic IER goals. We also found differential associations for state and trait empathy with IER goals. All empathy facets except personal distress were positively associated with goal attainment in Study 2. These findings address a major gap in our knowledge about everyday IER and offer a novel perspective on empathy in social emotion regulation processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Prevalence of phubbing behaviour in school and university students in Spain.

This study examined the prevalence of phubbing behavior among school and university students in Spain and analyzed the correlation of phubbing with other indicators of psychological well-being and mental health. The study sample comprised a total of 1,351 school and university students, with ages ranging from 12 to 21 years. The study used the Phubbing Scale (PS), the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and the Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (IERQ) for data collection. The results showed evidence of phubbing among approximately half of the students. Statistically significant differences were found based on gender and educational level in the Phone Obsession subscale and the PS total score, with male students and university students scoring higher in their respective parameters. In addition, phubbing was positively correlated with problematic internet use and negatively correlated with self-esteem. Phubbing behavior is highly prevalent among adolescents aged 12-21 years and is positively correlated with low self-esteem and problematic internet use. Developing strategies for addressing this widespread issue at early ages, particularly within the educational context, such as schools, is crucial for implementing preventive measures. The inappropriate use of technological devices, including smartphones, in schools has the potential to negatively affect students' well-being and ability to adapt to school.

I rely on a little help from my friends: the effect of interpersonal and intrapersonal emotion regulation on the relationship between FOMO and problematic internet use

BackgroundThis study investigated the role of emotion regulation in relation to the links between fear of missing out (i.e., FOMO) and two components of problematic internet use: problematic social media use and doomscrolling.MethodsParticipants (N = 603, Mage = 30.41, SDage = 7.64; 49.1% male-identifying) completed measures of fear of missing out, intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation, and problematic social media use, and doomscrolling. A parallel mediation model was tested to examine the nature of the associations between fear of missing out, intrapersonal, and interpersonal emotion regulation, in accounting for variance in the outcome measures.ResultsAnalyses revealed that the effect of fear of missing out on problematic social media use was fully mediated by both intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation. In contrast, the effect on doomscrolling was fully mediated by intrapersonal emotion regulation only.ConclusionsFindings clarify the role of emotion regulation in explaining the relationship between fear of missing out and two types of problematic internet use, indicating a need to consider individual differences in emotion regulation in an evolving social media landscape.

"Let's go over it again": Examining the intra- and interpersonal processes that perpetuate co-rumination in close relationships.

Co-rumination is an interpersonal emotion regulation strategy characterized by extensive, cyclical conversations regarding the causes and consequences of problems and associated negative emotions. Theory posits that over time, interpersonal benefits of co-rumination such as emotional intimacy reinforce the behavior, outweighing the resulting negative impacts on mental health. However, our understanding of how co-rumination is perpetuated within conversations is limited. This study (conducted in 2019-2020) aims to assess perceptions of partner co-rumination and responsiveness as factors that perpetuate co-rumination to better understand the intra- and interpersonal processes that influence how co-rumination unfolds within conversations. To do this, we utilized an observational paradigm with primarily White, female, young adult friendship dyads wherein one individual (the discloser) disclosed and discussed an extradyadic problem with a close friend (the responder). Using an empathic accuracy paradigm, participants reported their own and their partner's co-rumination and responsiveness for every 30-s epoch. Results revealed biased estimations of partner co-rumination that may facilitate reciprocity of co-ruminative conversation within the dyad. Additionally, while greater perceptions of partner co-rumination were perceived as responsive by disclosers and elicited responsive behavior from responders, perceived partner responsiveness did not perpetuate co-rumination within the conversation. Together, these findings enhance our understanding of the intra- and interpersonal processes that influence how co-rumination unfolds within conversations between close friends, but they also draw attention to unanswered questions in the field regarding partner contributions to co-rumination, the nature of problems discussed, and generalizability of these findings as well as those of other extant co-rumination research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual differences in interpersonal emotion regulation: What makes some people more (or less) successful than others?

AbstractPeople vary in the effectiveness with which they can change the way that others feel, yet we know surprisingly little about what drives these individual differences in interpersonal emotion regulation success. This paper provides a framework for describing ‘success’ in interpersonal emotion regulation and synthesizes extant theory and research regarding how personality and cognitive ability relate to interpersonal emotion regulation success. In doing so, our review brings together work from several related fields to offer an integrative framework to generate and guide future research that aims to understand why some people are proficient at influencing the emotions of others and why some are not, often suffering additional unintended consequences, such as diminished work or relationship success.

Social dynamics in interpersonal emotion regulation: A theoretical framework for understanding direct and indirect other-based processes

AbstractInterpersonal emotion regulation involves having emotions changed in a social context. While some research has used the term to refer to instances where others are used to alter one’s own emotions (intrinsic), other research refers to goal-directed actions aimed at modifying others’ emotional responses (extrinsic). We argue that the self-other distinction should be applied not only to the target (who has their emotion regulated) but also to the means (whether the agent uses themselves or others to achieve the regulation). Based on this, we propose interpersonal emotion regulation can take place when an agent changes a target’s emotions by affecting a third party’s emotion who will shift the emotion of the target in turn (direct other-based interpersonal ER) or by impacting a third party’s emotion (indirect other-based interpersonal ER). We discuss these processes and the conditions that lead to their emergence reconciling findings from different fields and suggesting new research venues.

Relationship Between Interpersonal Emotion Regulation and Social Support and Their Effects on Depressive Symptoms in Korean Emerging Adults

Relationship Between Interpersonal Emotion Regulation and Social Support and Their Effects on Depressive Symptoms in Korean Emerging Adults

The Effects of Narcissistic Tendencies on the Perceived Effectiveness of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation: Fears of Compassion as Mediators

The Effects of Narcissistic Tendencies on the Perceived Effectiveness of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation: Fears of Compassion as Mediators

Does interpersonal emotion regulation effort pay off?

Interpersonal emotion regulation shapes people's emotional and relational experiences. Yet, researchers know little about the regulation processes that influence these outcomes. Recent works in the intrapersonal emotion regulation space suggest that motivational strength, or effort, people invest in regulation might be the answer. We applied this motivated approach for the first time in the interpersonal space-looking at both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of interpersonal emotion regulation-in order to identify the potential emotional and relational outcomes of putting effort into regulating one's own emotions through others, and regulating others' emotions. In daily diary (N = 171) and experience sampling (N = 239) studies, we examined participants' interpersonal emotion regulation behaviors and socioemotional experiences in everyday social interactions over the course of 1 week. These methods allowed us to examine effort at both momentary and person levels. We found that people who habitually put in more intrinsic effort to feel better through others felt worse overall. People also felt worse on occasions when they put in more effort to extrinsically help others feel better, although at the person level extrinsic effort was associated with higher interaction quality. Together, our findings suggest that interpersonal emotion regulation success is not simply a matter of trying hard. This observation opens new research avenues to investigate the interplay of different factors that determine when, and for whom, investing effort in interpersonal emotion regulation pays off. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

How can I help?: Specific strategies used in interpersonal emotion regulation in a relationship context.

Most emotion regulation research investigates how individuals manage their own emotions but in everyday life, emotion regulation often takes place in an interpersonal context-that is, through the intervention of others, especially close relationship partners. In this manuscript, we describe a 2-week daily diary study of 197 couples, in which we examined the nature and effectiveness of partners' attempts at interpersonal emotion regulation. Organized around the extended process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 2015), we examined the frequency and perceived effectiveness of six strategies for regulating negative emotions and two strategies for regulating positive emotions, as well as the impact of emotional regulation effectiveness on relationship satisfaction. Results indicated that situation modification was the most common approach to regulating negative emotions, whereas savoring was most common for positive emotions. Most strategies were perceived to be effective by both regulators and their targets, with the exception of suppression for negative emotion, for which evidence was mixed, and dampening for positive emotion, which was not viewed as effective. The influence of emotion regulation on relationship satisfaction depended on one's perspective: Regulators felt that their effective efforts benefitted their relationships, but even when targets experienced emotion regulation as effective, they indicated no improvements in relationship satisfaction, perhaps because the emotion-eliciting events were still salient to them. Broadly speaking, this research highlights the value of examining emotion regulation in an interpersonal context, and in the context of partners' ordinary, everyday social interaction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Difficulties in Interpersonal Regulation of Emotions Scale (DIRE): Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance across Gender and Two Chinese Youth Samples.

Effective interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) strategies have been found to be meaningful predictors for positive psychological functioning. The Difficulties in Interpersonal Regulation of Emotions Scale (DIRE) is a measure developed to assess maladaptive IER strategies. This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of DIRE using two college student samples (Sample 1: n = 296; Sample 2: n = 419). The two-factor structure of DIRE (venting and excessive reassurance-seeking) was confirmed through an exploratory structure equation modeling approach. Our results demonstrated that the Chinese version of DIRE exhibits a similar factor structure (in both samples) as the original DIRE. Measurement invariance across gender and samples was also achieved. Latent mean analyses demonstrated that females more frequently reported excessive reassurance-seeking (in both samples) and venting (in Sample 1) than males. Furthermore, venting and excessive reassurance-seeking were significantly related to intrapersonal emotion regulation and well-being indicators. Although in Chinese culture DIRE performs somewhat differently from the original DIRE, the current findings suggest that DIRE is a reliable and valid scale with which to measure the IER strategies in Chinese culture and the use of this measure in clinical practice may allow for an accurate assessment of emotion regulation deficits in clients from other diverse cultures.

Influencing a nation: How a leader's interpersonal emotion regulation influences citizen compliance via trust and emotions during a global pandemic.

During crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, it was necessary for political leaders to influence citizens to comply with public health measures and restrictions. These health measures (e.g., physical distancing, staying at home) had substantial negative effects on individuals' lives and thus were sometimes met with defensive, noncooperative responses. To influence citizens' compliance with public health guidance and nationally imposed restrictions, political leaders needed to effectively motivate them through their public communications. We argue that while negative emotions may have discouraged citizens from deviating from public health restrictions, other factors such as citizens' trust in political leaders played a role as well. We investigated whether the perception of the interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) strategies used by government leaders in ministerial briefings impacted citizens' compliance intentions via either negative affect or perceived trustworthiness. Across three studies based in Western Europe (Studies 1 and 2 survey, Study 3 experimental), we consistently found that a leader's affect-improving IER strategies increased compliance intentions via perceived trustworthiness but not via negative affect. Affect-worsening IER strategies demonstrated either no effect or an indirect worsening effect on the compliance intentions of citizens. Our findings highlight the importance of IER strategies in ministerial briefings and perceived trustworthiness of political leaders in motivating citizens to comply with public health restrictions during a pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).