Interpenetrating Phase Composites Research Articles

Tensile, flexural, and mode-I cracking behavior of interpenetrating phase composites (IPC), developed using additively manufactured PLA-based structures with different infill densities and epoxy resin polymer as matrix

Interpenetrating phase composites (IPC) materials are designed to combine the advantages of made-from materials or develop an intended behavior. Recently, the use of 3D printed structures has received attention due to advantages, such as the rapid and cheap prototyping techniques of complex structures. However, most materials, such as polylactic acid (PLA) used for conventional 3D printing, have low strength and insignificant durability. To overcome these issues, the excellent characteristics of polymer adhesives, such as epoxy resin, can be used to increase their strength and durability. In this paper, PLA-based 3D printed samples and epoxy resin adhesive were merged to develop an interpenetrating phase composite. The samples were printed with 25, 50, 75, and 100 infill percentages and tested in direct tensile, bending, and mode-I fracture. From the results, it can be seen that reducing the infill percentage to 75, 50, and 25 % reduces the tensile strength to 16, 9, and 3 MPa (−40 %, −66 %, and −90 % compared to the sample with 100 % infill with 26 MPa strength), adding epoxy resin to develop an IPC, results in 24, 29 and 32 MPa tensile strength. Compared to 3D-printed parts with the same infill percentages, the IPCs have 150, 320, and 1140 % higher tensile strengths, respectively. Also, the failed samples were reviewed by scanning electron microscope.

Mechanical performance of interpenetrating phase composites with multi-sheet lattice structures

Interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs), as a novel type of composite material, offer advantages such as lightweight, high strength, and superior energy absorption. This study proposed a multi-sheet lattice structure based on the Gyroid surface, which was initially designed and then fabricated via TC4 laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Through the infiltration of epoxy resin, a composite material with interpenetrating phases was achieved. Subsequently, the mechanical properties of the IPCs were comprehensively investigated using experimental and numerical simulation methods. In quasi-static compression tests, the IPCs demonstrated higher strength and improved energy absorption characteristics compared to original lattice structures. However, under dynamic loading conditions, while the strength of the IPCs showed significant enhancement, the improvement in energy absorption characteristics of the composite structures was constrained by temperature rise, thermal softening effects, and the glass transition of the epoxy resin induced by elevated temperatures. Thus, while the proposed IPCs exhibited high strength under both quasi-static and dynamic loads, it is imperative to consider material properties and the influence of temperature on energy absorption to prevent overestimation of performance under dynamic loading conditions. Therefore, this study not only highlights the novelty of utilizing a multi-sheet lattice structure based on the Gyroid surface for creating IPCs, but also underscores the importance of carefully considering temperature effects on material properties when evaluating their performance under dynamic conditions.

Entangled metallic porous material–silicone rubber interpenetrating phase composites with simultaneous high specific stiffness and energy consumption

High stiffness and superior energy consumption have consistently been primary research focuses in the field of damping materials. Hence, this work presented an innovative interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) crafted from wound elastic entangled metallic porous material and silicone rubber. The proposed composite effectively integrates the unique properties of the original materials, showcasing a seamless blend. Dynamic experimental tests were conducted to analyze the dynamic compression mechanical behavior of the composites, revealing that the composites exhibit excellent energy consumption capabilities and elevated stiffness characteristics. The improvement in both stiffness and damping characteristics is attributed to the addition of silicone rubber, which solidifies the structure of the composites. The introduction of interfacial friction results from maintaining compression, sliding, and other frictional interactions among the original spiral coils. Notably, the composites also display exceptional fatigue resistance. Overall, this work demonstrates the potential to concurrently achieve enhanced stiffness and superior energy consumption through the use of entangled metallic porous material and silicone rubber.

Mechanics of ceramic-epoxy interpenetrating phase composites engineered with TPMS and spinodal topologies

The current contribution investigates the engineering of high strength, ductility and damping interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs), incorporating architected brittle ceramic reinforcement phases in epoxy and whisker-enhanced epoxy matrices. Initially, the mechanical performance of the underlying, ceramic, single-phase triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) and spinodal metamaterial designs is assessed, quantifying volume fraction and architecture effects. Ceramic-epoxy IPCs can yield more than 30 times higher peak stress values compared to their constituent single-phase ceramic metamaterials, providing an overall ductile rather than brittle response, with substantial strength and deformation capacity. Moreover, whisker-enhanced epoxy matrices furnish considerable improvements in the peak strength and post-elastic performance of epoxy-ceramic IPCs, yielding exceptional Specific Energy Absorption (SEA) attributes, up to 18.5 J/g for 20% ceramic reinforcement phase content IPCs. The effect of the reinforcement phase design is more prominent at lower volumetric contents, leading to considerable differences in strength and energy absorption characteristics. Failure is controlled by the maximum principal stress capacity of the ceramic reinforcement phase, as revealed by dedicated finite element analysis. The remarkable static attributes are combined with outstanding dynamic damping characteristics. The maximum dynamic loss modulus is controlled by the reinforcement phase type and volumetric content, exceeding 500 MPa at 55 Hz for spinodal-based, 30% ceramic reinforcement phase content IPCs, values that outperform the damping capacity of most comparable-strength materials.

Constructing dual-scale high-entropy alloy/polymer interpenetrating networks to develop a lightweight composite with high strength and excellent damping capacity

Lightweight materials with high strength and excellent damping capacity are of great significance for reducing weight and vibration and maintaining stability in industrial applications. However, these characteristics are usually difficult to achieve simultaneously in traditional damping materials. Here, we provide a design strategy for dual-scale interpenetrating networks. By infiltrating the viscoelastic polymer containing CrMnFeCoNi nanoalloy/carbon nanotube networks into CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy shape memory alloy foam with a three-dimensional network structure, the dual-scale CrMnFeCoNi/polymer interpenetrating phase composite was developed. When the carbon nanotube loading is 2 wt%, the composite exhibits a compressive strength of 37.2 MPa and an energy absorption capacity of 22.5 MJ·m−3 (ε = 65 %), with a mere density of 2.528 g·cm−3. In the temperature range of 20 ∼ 150℃, its loss factor exceeds 0.132 with a peak value of 0.206. Compared with CrMnFeCoNi foam, its compressive strength, energy absorption capacity and peak internal friction are increased by 85 %, 65 % and 156 %, respectively. The construction of dual-scale interpenetrating networks introduces high-density interfaces, and the coupling of multi-scale intrinsic damping and interface damping endows the composite with high ground-state damping. The superposition of the phase transformation peak of CrMnFeCoNi foam and the glass transition peak of polymer composite matrix enables a wide damping temperature window. This study offers a new perspective for developing high-performance damping materials.

Thermal expansion behavior and analysis of Al/AlN interpenetrating phase composites with different preform porosity

In this work, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of Al/AlN interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) has been measured based on the length change from room temperature (RT) to 200 °C. 3D representative volume elements (RVEs) are created to model the microstructures of Al/AlN IPCs and the finite element models generated from RVEs are used to study thermal expansion behavior. CTE was predicted utilizing the finite element method (FEM) and thermo-elastic models of Kerner, Turner and Schapery, after which the results were compared with the experimental values. According to experimental results, a notable reduction in the CTE of IPCs is observed as preform porosity decreases. This shows that an AlN preform can effectively enhance dimensional stability. A comparative analysis of extant literature indicates that IPCs may attain a lower CTE compared to particle-reinforced composites. Experimental data align closely with analytical models. The FE simulation results demonstrate better consistency with experimental data only under conditions of high preform porosity, since residual thermal stresses and plastic deformation were not considered.

Static and dynamic damping mechanical performance of architected metal-epoxy interpenetrating phase composites

The present contribution investigates the static and dynamic damping mechanical response of architected aluminum-epoxy interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs), engineered with strut, triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS), and stochastic spinodal AlSi10Mg reinforcement phases. Both single-phase metamaterials and co-continuous, multi-phase composites are analyzed, assessing the role of the reinforcement phase design and the addition of silicon carbide (SiC) nano-whisker epoxy enhancements in the effective mechanical performance. Aluminum-epoxy IPCs yield a constitutive response with peak, plateau stress, and overall energy absorptions up to 25 times higher than the ones recorded for the underlying single-phase metamaterials. Inner plastic strains, probed through dedicated finite element analysis, provide insights into the inner damage evolution, leading to characteristic ductile failure patterns, as revealed by computer tomography analysis. The exceptional specific energy absorption attributes are complemented by outstanding dynamic performance characteristics, with significant loss moduli over a broad range of frequencies and damping ratios up to 0.29.

Mode I/II cracking behavior of additively manufactured interpenetrating phase composites (IPC), an experimental and theoretical study

An interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) material combines the advantages of being made from materials for an intended behavior. 3D-printed parts have received attention for rapid prototyping of complex structures; however, their porous inherent makes them susceptible to cracking. Polymer adhesives can be used to overcome these issues to increase their strength and durability. In this paper, IPCs were developed using 3D-printed scaffolds and epoxy resin matrix, and their fracture behavior was examined. The samples were printed with 25, 50, 75, and 100 infill percentages and tested in the full range of mode I-II fracture. From the results, the promising behavior of IPCs can be seen. Where the 3d printed samples with 100, 75, 50, and 25 infills show 2.4, 1.8, 0.8, and 0.3 MPa√m mode-I fracture toughness, IPCs made from samples with 75, 50, and 25 infills, show 2.0, 2.2 and 2.7 MPa√m, respectively. The same trends are also seen in the full range of mode I-II fractures. The generalized maximum tangential stress (GMTS) criterion accurately predicted KIIc/KIc ratios among the investigated mixed-mode fracture criteria. The evaluations indicated that the discrepancy between the measurements is mainly due to the sign and magnitude of the T-stress parameter.

Mechanical behavior of interpenetrating phase composite structures based on triply periodic minimal surface lattices

The triple periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures have received widespread attention due to their excellent mechanical properties, such as high specific strength and energy absorption. However, these structures are prone to suffering catastrophic damage due to stress concentration and shear deformation in actual loading environments, affecting their load-bearing performance. In this work, interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) structures were fabricated by filling thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) as a soft material into the diamond minimal surface structure using the multi-material fused deposition modeling technique, and their mechanical behavior was investigated numerically and experimentally. The effects of topological types and volume fractions on the performance of IPC structures were investigated. It is shown that the IPC structure undergoes stretching-dominated deformation, and its strength and toughness are significantly improved compared to the TPMS structure. Due to the addition of a complementary phase structure made of TPU, stress concentration and shear failure are reduced. The global deformation of the IPC structure and stress distribution of the TPMS phase are more uniform, effectively protecting the entire structure from catastrophic failure.

Corrosion Behavior of 10 ppi TAD3D/5A05Al Composite in a Chloride Environment.

This study utilizes desalted and denitrated treated aluminum dross (TAD) as a raw material, along with kaolin and 10 ppi (pores per inch) polyurethane foam as a template. The slurry is converted into an aluminum dross green body with a three-dimensional network structure using the impregnation method. A three-dimensional network aluminum dross ceramic framework (TAD3D) is created at a sintering temperature of 1350 °C. The liquid 5A05 aluminum alloy at a temperature of 950 °C infiltrates into the voids of TAD3D through pressureless infiltration, resulting in TAD3D/5A05Al composite material with an interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) structure. The corrosion behavior of TAD3D/5A05 composite material in sodium chloride solution was examined using the salt spray test (NSS) method. The study shows that the pores of the TAD3D framework, produced by sintering aluminum dross as raw material, are approximately 10 ppi. The bonding between TAD3D and 5A05Al interfaces is dense, with strong interfacial adhesion. The NSS corrosion time ranged from 24 h to 360 h, during which the composite material underwent pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion and self-healing processes. Results from Potentiodynamic Polarization (PDP) and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) indicate that, as corrosion progresses, the Ecorr of TAD3D/5A05Al decreases from -0.718 V to -0.786 V, and Icorr decreases from 0.398 μA·cm-2 to 0.141 μA·cm-2. A dense oxide film forms on the surface of the composite material, increasing the anodic Tafel slope and decreasing the cathodic Tafel slope, thus slowing down the rates of cathodic and anodic reactions. Factors such as lower interface corrosion resistance or a relatively weak passivation film at the interface do not significantly diminish the corrosion resistance of TAD3D and 5A05Al. The corrosion resistance of the composite material initially decreases and then increases.

Hybrid manufacturing and mechanical properties of architected interpenetrating phase metal-ceramic and metal-metal composites

A hybrid manufacturing process for the fabrication of architected metal-ceramic and metal-metal interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) is elaborated and employed to assess the mechanical performance of novel, advanced composite materials. In particular, aluminum-based co-continuous composites, reinforced with triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) steel and ceramic (zirconia) phases are engineered, combining 3D-printing and investment casting techniques. The hybrid process results in excellent wettability between the ceramic-Al and steel-Al phases, characterized through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and micro-CT scanning analysis. The arising IPCs yield mechanical properties that utterly differ from the performance of the base ceramic or steel TPMS reinforcement topologies, with the ceramic-Al composites to furnish a highly ductile response and steel-Al IPCs a remarkable post-elastic stiffening performance. Ceramic-based IPCs yield a specific energy absorption (SEA) that is more than 400 times higher than the one of single-phase ceramic metamaterials, while steel-based IPCs allow for SEA values in the order of 50 J/g, values which rank among the highest ever reported for architected IPCs. A broader Ashby-type classification is provided, while the efficiency of the IPC plastification process is associated with the obtained SEA values. Moreover, experimental results are complemented by finite element analysis insights in the effect of the interpenetrating phase design on the inner stresses developed. The hybrid manufacturing process and the co-continuous composites investigated open novel pathways in the engineering of next-generation multifunctional architected IPCs for base material combinations beyond the ones here considered.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/AlN interpenetrating phase composites with different preform porosity

In this work, Al/AlN interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) was fabricated by infiltrating the alloy melt into AlN preform via low pressure casting method. Open cell porous AlN preforms, fabricated via the slurry infiltration method, and have four different preform porosity were used for IPCs fabrication. The microstructures of porous AlN preforms and Al/AlN interpenetrating phase composites were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The phase compositions of preforms and composites were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The interface between AlN and Al matrix was found to have no visible defects, indicating good interfacial bonding. Compression tests were conducted, and the results showed that the material strength and toughness increased with increasing porosity. Additionally, the composites changed from brittle fracture to ductile fracture. Nanoindentation tests indicate that an increase in AlN content enhances the hardness of the IPCs components.

Design of the Ti-PCL interpenetrating phase composites with the minimal surface for property enhancement of orthopedic implants

Design of the Ti-PCL interpenetrating phase composites with the minimal surface for property enhancement of orthopedic implants

Enhanced mechanical and thermal properties in 3D printed Al2O3 lattice/ epoxy interpenetrating phase composites

Interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) with 3D printed alumina microlattices infiltrated with epoxy have been fabricated. Mechanical analysis shows that the IPCs under quasi-static compression generally exhibit fracture behaviour similar to that of their ceramic-lattice constituent but in a gradual manner. The IPCs with Simple Cubic lattices initiate the fractures at the struts in the outer lattice planes, while IPCs with Octet Truss and Kelvin Cell lattices tend to fracture at their (110) or (111) planes. The compressive strength and energy absorption of IPCs follow the order of Simple Cubic > Kelvin Cells > Octet Truss when the ceramic volume fraction is 0.3. The IPCs display compressive strengths up to 120% higher and energy absorption 100% greater than the iso-strain combined properties of the lattice and epoxy. The factors governing the fracture behaviour and the strengthening and energy absorption mechanisms are thoroughly discussed. Furthermore, the IPCs show much better retention of mechanical strength and dimensional stability at elevated temperatures compared with many commonly used particle or fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix composites.

Microstructure characterization and fracture behaviors of Silicon carbide/metallic glass composites with interpenetrating architecture

Silicon carbide/metallic glass interpenetrating phase composites (SiC/MG IPCs) have attracted great attention due to their superior performances. However, the effect of the interface on the mechanical properties remains unclear. In this paper, three SiC three-dimension network scaffolds (SiC 3D-NSs) with different volume fractions and surface areas were firstly prepared by selecting SiC particles of different sizes, and the corresponding SiC/MG IPCs were further prepared using vacuum pressure infiltration and water quenching. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the scaffolds and related IPCs were studied. The SiC and MG phases are continuous, mutually interpenetrated in 3D space. The strength of the scaffolds and related IPCs are positively correlated with the SiC volume fraction. It is found that partial crystallization of MG occurred at the interface due to the increase in interface thermal resistance and heterogeneous nucleation. During compression or bending, such the interfacial structure can retard the main crack propagation by initiating a large number of secondary cracks. It contributes to an apparent increase in the crack propagation path, significantly improving the fracture toughness of IPCs. This result shows that interface engineering in IPCs is of great significance for improving their toughness.

A ZA22/Al interpenetrating phase composite with high compressive stress plateau and high damping capacity

A ZA22/Al interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) was prepared by a two-step infiltration method for the first time. The ZA22 alloy and the Al matrix were well bonded together, and a layer with ultrafine grains containing Al, Zn and O elements was formed between them. Lamellar eutectoid structure (LES) in original ZA22 alloy transformed to granular eutectoid structure (GES) with submicron sized α and η phases, resulting in a significant increase in phase interface density. The property test results showed that the IPC has a high compressive stress plateau and a high damping capacity up to 0.2. Correlated mechanisms were discussed.

A novel Ti/Al interpenetrating phase composite with enhanced mechanical properties

Lightweight, energy-absorbing materials with excellent mechanical properties are highly desired in practical engineering applications. A novel Ti-Al interpenetrating phase composite (Ti/Al IPC) was successfully fabricated by filling an Al alloy (ZL102) in the pores of an additively manufactured triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structure composed of Ti alloy (TC4). This IPC demonstrates a remarkable combination of attributes, including a high yield stress of 305 MPa, a Young's modulus of 64 GPa, and an ultimate tensile strength of 420 MPa. These mechanical properties are 1.5 to 2.9 times stronger than those of a single TC4 TPMS structure of the same size. The enhanced performance can be attributed to the synergistic strengthening and toughening effect resulting from the internal interpenetration of the ZL102 phase within the structure.

Recycled PET Composites Reinforced with Stainless Steel Lattice Structures Made by AM.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling is one of the most important environmental issues, assuring a cleaner environment and reducing the carbon footprint of technological products, taking into account the quantities used year by year. The recycling possibilities depend on the quality of the collected material and on the targeted product. Current research aims to increase recycling quantities by putting together recycled PET in an innovative way as a filler for the additive manufactured metallic lattice structure. Starting from the structures mentioned above, a new range of composite materials was created: IPC (interpenetrating phase composites), materials with a complex architecture in which a solid phase, the reinforcement, is uniquely combined with the other phase, heated to the temperature of melting. The lattice structure was modeled by the intersection of two rings using Solid Works, which generates the lattice structure, which was further produced by an additive manufacturing technique from 316L stainless steel. The compressive strength shows low values for recycled PET, of about 26 MPa, while the stainless-steel lattice structure has about 47 MPa. Recycled PET molding into the lattice structure increases its compressive strength at 53 MPa. The Young's moduli are influenced by the recycled PET reinforcement by an increase from about 1400 MPa for the bare lattice structure to about 1750 MPa for the reinforced structure. This sustains the idea that recycled PET improves the composite elastic behavior due to its superior Young's modulus of about 1570 MPa, acting synergically with the stainless-steel lattice structure. The morphology was investigated with SEM microscopy, revealing the binding ability of recycled PET to the 316L surface, assuring a coherent composite. The failure was also investigated using SEM microscopy, revealing that the microstructural unevenness may act as a local tensor, which promotes the interfacial failure within local de-laminations that weakens the composite, which finally breaks.

Effect of the lattice structure on the interface zone and the final properties of novel PrintCast Ti64-AlSi9Cu3 interpenetrating phase composites

It is an ongoing challenge, especially in metals, to simultaneously improve the strength and energy absorption capacities while remaining lightweight, since these properties have frequently conflicted with each other. Here, we present a topology design approach to address this issue by developing novel metal-metal interpenetrating phase composite systems (IPCs) by infiltrating an AlSi9Cu3 melt into three-dimensionally additively manufactured Ti64 strut-based lattice structures (Cubic and BCCZ). Our key interest lies in forming an interface zone between the lattice structure and the matrix, which can play a critical role in determining the final properties of the IPCs. The results demonstrated that both the AM-Ti64 lattices and AlSi9Cu3 matrix have continuously bonded by the formation of an interface zone to form solid metal-metal IPC systems. Changing the design of the lattice structure from Cubic to BCCZ reduced the Al matrix-casting pores and defects due to the increased surface area fraction. Furthermore, both IPC systems exhibit superior mechanical performance compared with the rule-of-mixtures prediction and compared with each material separately, most likely due to the continuous interface zone that firmly bound the materials. Through a comparative analysis of our IPCs with published literature on metal-metal IPCs, we demonstrated the superior combination of compressive strength and lightweight characteristics exhibited by our IPC systems. This study sheds light on how the lattice structure architecture can tailor the final properties and the interface zone composition of the Ti64-AlSi9Cu3 IPC systems. Our results establish important groundwork for widespread research efforts on IPC systems with unprecedented mechanical and physical properties.

Ti-PEEK interpenetrating phase composites with minimal surface for property enhancement of orthopedic implants

Bioinspired interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) present a promising strategy for augmenting the mechanical properties of materials, thereby synergistically enhancing the strength and fracture toughness of orthopedic implants. In this study, Ti6Al4V-PEEK IPCs were fabricated by pressing molten PEEK into additively manufactured Ti6Al4V scaffolds designed using minimal surface structures. The mutual spatial interpenetration and strong binding between Ti and PEEK were confirmed through CT detection and SEM analyses, revealing the presence of continuous constituents within biomimetic architectures. Due to interpenetration promoting interaction and efficient stress transfer of the two phases, IPCs enhances toughness and energy absorption by over 291% and 309% respectively while maintaining bone-compatible elastic modulus and higher strength. The mechanisms underlying stress dispersion, crack propagation resistance, and prolonged stress plateau period of IPCs were investigated through the utilization of digital image correlation (DIC) and finite element simulation techniques. Among the various types of IPCs investigated, Gyroid IPCs exhibit superior comprehensive mechanical properties, thereby facilitating the development of customized IPCs aimed at ensuring long-term stability in orthopedic implantation scenarios.