Internet Shutdown Research Articles

Internet shutdown: Governmental action, communication breach and International Human Rights

This article deconstructs why governments shut down the internet in some parts and communities within their states for stated, and sometimes, no stated reasons. Using a doctrinal methodology the research question raised for the study is whether internet shutdown by any government, for whatsoever reasons, is not a governmental breach of internationally recognised human rights? One of the major findings of this work is that it is generally accepted that the right of access to the internet is an emerging right recognised by the international human right (soft law). It is as well recognised that the right is a special right, a standalone right without class, not because it is digital (soft) in outlook, intangible in effects and borderless in nature, but because it is accessory in nature. It is also established that digital right is an accessory right that makes the enjoyment of human rights possible. The study concludes that shutdown access to the internet shutdown may be legal provided the shutdown is moral and reasonable. It recommends that the dynamics of lawmaking should be geared towards enacting enabling laws and regulations that protect access to internet. The provision for derogation to these laws should be clear without ambiguity or obfuscation.

The impact of digital governance on tourism development

This paper examines the impact of digital governance on inbound tourism using the panel dataset from 151 countries from 2000 to 2019. Fixed-effects and System Generalised Method of Moments estimations show that the internet shutdown capacity and practice decrease inbound tourism. Social media monitoring with strict rules also hinders inbound tourism. It is found that governance capacity and practical censorship implications negatively affect tourism activities. Several policy implications for the proper control of digital communications are also discussed.

COVID-19, Internet and Education: Loss of a Generation

Various international instruments and municipal laws have reiterated the importance of education as a basic human right in itself as well as a means to achieve other human rights. The Internet is the most useful tool that has revolutionized the entire system of education. All across the globe, the internet serves as a basic medium of sharing knowledge and research. In Jammu & Kashmir, however, we see a completely contrasting situation as it leads India’s internet shutdown statistics. The article aims to analyze the impact of the 7 months long lockdown and internet suspension in the region after the revocation of J&K’s constitution, followed by the COVID-19 pandemic, on the education of children in the region. Being the longest internet shutdown in the history of any democracy, this paper elucidates how the shutdown left millions of students in J&K without access to their fundamental right to education during this digital lockdown. The paper first analyzes the importance of and the right to education, as well as the role of the internet on education. It then moves on to discuss the 7-month long internet shutdown in the valley of Kashmir and mentions interviews to elucidate the human impact of such shutdown on education. The paper finally discusses the multi-fold impact of the internet shutdown on education in general and the life of students in particular.

Navigating Tensions and Stabilising Public Safety with Internet Shutdowns

Internet shutdowns have proliferated in the last few years in India owing to the government’s effort to control the spread of rumours and misinformation primarily in periods when there is a possibility of tension or social unrest. This paper examines how public emergency and public safety, which comprises the core of the law for implementing internet suspension, is not adequately defined and therefore, continues to be used indiscriminately. This article reviews the use of internet shutdown as a public safety measure.

Democracy In The Dark: Internet Shutdowns In India As A Challenge to Freedom of Speech and Expression

The right to access the internet is intrinsically linked to fundamental rights such as the right to education and the right to privacy under Articles 21A and 21 of the Indian Constitution, respectively. The internet not only enhances the quality of education but also serves as a powerful tool for the free expression of knowledge and ideas. It has been recognized globally as a human right, and adherence to this right is imperative for countries signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Freedom of speech and expression, enshrined in Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution, extends to the internet, with reasonable restrictions outlined in Article 19(2). In recent years, internet shutdowns in India have become increasingly common, particularly during periods of civil unrest and protests. While the government has the authority to impose reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech and expression to maintain public order, the arbitrary use of internet shutdowns has become a concerning trend. This paper explores the reasons behind and the consequences of these shutdowns on the right to freedom of speech and expression. The internet is a crucial medium for citizens to communicate, express dissent, and seek support, especially during times of crisis and unrest. Its importance is evident in regions like Jammu and Kashmir and the North Eastern states of India, where prolonged internet shutdowns have isolated affected communities from the rest of the country. The imposition of internet shutdowns as a means to restore peace raises questions about its reasonableness and adherence to constitutional provisions. The paper cites landmark cases, such as Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India, where the Supreme Court emphasized the importance of necessity and proportionality in internet shutdown orders. The lack of accountability mechanisms, combined with normalized shutdowns, has allowed the government to stifle dissent without justifiable cause. To protect fundamental rights and uphold the principles of democracy, judicial activism and a critical evaluation of government actions are essential. The paper concludes that internet shutdowns, as a means of suppressing free speech and expression, often fail to meet the criteria of reasonable restrictions and are, therefore, a violation of the fundamental rights guaranteed under the Indian Constitution.

Effects of internet shutdown among medical students of a tertiary care hospital in Imphal, Manipur: a cross-sectional study

Background: The internet shutdown has become a global issue affecting the academic activities of medical students. Due to civil unrest in Manipur, a Northeastern state in India, the internet has been shut down for the past several months. Therefore, the study was undertaken with the objective to determine the magnitude of the effects of the internet shutdown among the medical students of a tertiary care hospital in Manipur. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in July 2023 among 135 medical students of a tertiary care hospital using a convenience sampling method. Data were collected by using a self-administered structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done by using SPSS software version 26. Results: The mean age of the participants was 21±1.8 years. The study found that the majority (93.3%) of medical students opined that the internet shutdown affected their daily activities. Most of the participants (83.7%) stated that their study was affected by the current internet shutdown. Only (39.2%) of participants faced problems in submitting online forms. Most of the participants (71.1%) had a bad experience during the internet shutdown. Conclusions: The internet shutdown affected most of the participants in their daily activities. Most of the participants felt they were missing out on information and opportunities. Most of the participants rate their overall experiences as bad during the internet shutdown.

The Internet Shutdown and Revolutionary Politics: Defining the Infrastructural Power of the Internet

The solution to the accumulation of authoritarian power enhanced by the Internet will not emerge from within the Internet itself; rather, the only radical and enduring response to the kind of networked authoritarianism that is becoming pervasive globally must regard attacking the extractivist foundation of Internet materiality as the primary and most effective antifascist tactic. Far from being a recent emergence of authoritarian infrastructure, however, the Internet was developed by the US military-industrial complex and has always carried the imprint of authoritarian utility. The Internet is now a pervasive infrastructural feature of global capitalism and its state accomplices, and the deliberate temporary stoppage of Internet functioning by state actors, a so-called Internet “shutdown” or “kill switch,” illustrates the primary purpose of this infrastructure is to defend state power and capitalist commerce. Liberal attempts to reform the Internet are misguided, and anti-authoritarians should adopt an abolitionist position regarding the Internet as infrastructure. The primary strategy for such a form of abolitionism should focus its efforts on shutting down the extractive industries that provide the material substrate of the Internet.

DEMOCRACY AND RULE OF LAW IN THE ERA OF ALGORITHMS: A REVIEW ON INTERNET SHUTDOWNS IN INDIA

The author of this article analyses the algorithmic impact on public participation in the decision-making process and its effects on democratic principles as recognized under the Constitution. Democratic principles are implemented through the Institutions of civil societies, and civil societies have problems with internal and external contractions and trust issues. In the contemporary world, it is observed that the government is silent on public opinion on several of its decision. This silence of government gives rise to several questions, such as – In a democratic setup, to what extent public can participate in the decision-making process of government? To what extent government can curb the voice of people with the help of assisted technologies such as internet shutdown and filter bubbles? What are the possible legitimate ways a government can be accountable for its actions?

Internet Shutdown and Regime-Imposed Disinformation Campaigns

This article examines the circulation of a military-led disinformation campaign against civilians leading the pro-democracy movement in Sudan. We examine the political communication of military leaders in Sudan after the June 3 massacre when the state open-fired at the protestors in Khartoum and later declared an Internet shutdown. Our primary thesis is that a state-sponsored Internet shutdown generates a communicative environment conducive to disseminating disinformation created by the state (here, military) to justify their violence and junta rule in the country. Insights from this case study also demonstrate how autocratic states impose Internet shutdowns to disable regional media and circulate disinformation against dissenting voices. Unlike most literature contextualised in fully functioning democracies of the global North, our article offers a glimpse into the evolving forms of disinformation in transitioning democracies under autocratic regimes. Our findings provide theoretical provocations to explore the workings of the conventional forms of control in a digitally mediated and autocratic society.

Containing Contagion in a Garrison State

Containing Contagion in a Garrison State

Protests, Internet shutdowns, and disinformation in a transitioning state

Internet shutdowns authorized by the state are becoming a recurring case in countries under military or authoritarian rule, such as Sudan. This article examines how the military in Sudan shut down the Internet to cover up the June 3 massacre. The shutdown made it difficult for the protestors and civilians to share and document the human rights violations committed by the state from June 3 to July 9, 2019. We also demonstrate how the Internet shutdowns were instrumental in circulating state-sponsored disinformation campaigns delegitimizing the protests. The article expands on existing literature to explain how information vacuums are conducive to the spread of disinformation and the weakening of on-ground protest movements. Despite the crippling effects of the Internet shutdown in Khartoum, our analysis illustrates how protestors challenged designed technical and physical workarounds to circumvent the shutdown.

Internet Shutdown in Indonesia: An Appropriate Response or A Threat to Human Rights?

In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of harsh censorship in several parts of the globe, notably Africa and Asia. In some cases, the shutdown may be justified, but in other cases, it is driven by the political interest of the regime. The research evaluates the Internet shutdowns in the post-2019 presidential election in Indonesia and during the social unrest in Papua Island. Using normative legal research, which uses statute, case, and comparative approach concludes that although Internet shutdowns in some situations are tolerable, their usage should be less frequent and more restricted. These explanations must be examined using legality, legitimacy, and proportionality principles to limit official arguments for Internet shutdowns because they infringe on human rights. However, since no enforcement mechanism exists, this is only a formality. The Indonesian government's decision to block Internet access to social media platforms during the 2019 presidential election riots and Papua social unrest is not an appropriate response because the decision violates the principles of declaration, proportionality, necessity, and legality, which must be respected even in an emergency situation. Furthermore, the ruling infringed on the civil rights to information controlled by Article 19 of the ICCPR as adopted by Law Number 12 of 2005. It also harmed several industries, including digital-based commerce. The research proffers alternative Internet policy choices for the government in response to the political escalation and social unrest.

Dolphin: A Cellular Voice Based Internet Shutdown Resistance System

Traditional censorship revolves around blocking access to some websites (or services) over the Internet. However, recently there has been a rise in the events of an extreme form of censorship viz., deliberate Internet shutdown, leading to complete Internet disconnection, severely impacting lives in such regions. Naturally, these shutdowns render all existing circumvention schemes unusable. Thus, we present Dolphin, a first of its kind system that can provide access to lightweight and delay tolerant Internet applications (email, tweets, news snippets, etc.) during Internet shutdowns. Dolphin uses the cellular voice channel to transmit data bits. A user in the shutdown region (who wishes to access these applications) requires a peer in non-shutdown region to send and retrieve content on its behalf. The data bits between the peers are sent by first encoding them into audio and then transmitting them over a cellular voice call. We overcome multiple challenges while designing and implementing Dolphin. E.g., the cellular voice channel is inherently lossy and unreliable. But the Internet applications need reliable transfers. Thus, in Dolphin we develop a TCP-style reliability layer to overcome the losses that works atop any underlying encoding and modulation scheme. Further, to evade eavesdroppers over the insecure voice channel, we provide end-to-end confidentiality. Also, Dolphin can function even without human intervention, by using cellular voice automation services. We experimentally show that Dolphin works for Internet applications, by testing it for sending email, tweets and accessing news snippets. All these applications take a few minutes to be accessed (e.g., a 500 character email was received in under 2 minutes).

Nationalizing the Internet to Break a Protest Movement: Internet Shutdown and Counter-Appropriation in Iran of Late 2019

To deal with a spontaneous civil uprising following a substantial rise in gas prices, the Iranian security apparatus imposed in late 2019 techno-political measures and blocked access to international websites and services. To analyze these measures, we conducted 19 interviews with Iranians living inside and outside the country. We argue that the concept of the shutdown, as portrayed in Western media, is not perfectly suitable to describe the infrastructural restrictions and propose the concept of an internet nationalization. This paper offers an in-depth analysis of what the nationalization meant and how it affected the lives of Iranians participating or not participating in the protests. We also report on a variety of creative measures, both technical and non-technical, Iranians took to counter-appropriate the government-imposed shutdown of international connectivity. Based on these data, we elaborate on the concept of counter-appropriation.

Internet Shutdown Policy at Papua and West Papua through the Public Policy Perspective

Internet Shutdown policy implemented in August to September 2019 at Papua and West Papua has caused competing policy narrative between the government’s main narration of national security and the civil society’s contra narration of violation of human rights. This research aims to explain the Internet Shutdown policy at Papua and West Papua with public policy perspective with its main arguments hinged in human rights’ perspective. This research uses qualitative approach in which the data-gathering were done through interviews with stakeholders, documents, and media statement and analyzed using narrative policy analysis method. The result of this research shows that the polemic on Internet Shutdown in Papua happens because of the different belief systems held by the government and the civil society. The government’s belief system understands that security approach is the best approach in managing conflict in Papua, hence why Internet Shutdown is a viable way to manage said conflict. Whereas the civil society’s belief system understands that Internet Shutdown is a violation of human rights because it is harmful for the general public.

Fake News and Internet Shutdowns in Indonesia: Symptoms of Failure to Uphold Democracy

The Indonesian government limited or shut down internet access during separate riots in Jakarta and Papua in 2019. The justification for blocking the internet and disabling certain features of social media platforms was to quell the unrest by ceasing the spread of fake news. Nevertheless, the government did not declare a state of emergency in response to either situation, triggering debate on whether the internet restrictions had any strong constitutional basis or if they were out of proportion and unconstitutional. This study evaluates the government’s policy on internet shutdowns to reduce the spread of fake news amid riots, and explicates when the state of emergency “feature” might be activated. The research method of this article is a doctrinal legal approach, which critically examines whether the government policy was excessive, and to what extent a state of emergency can be implemented by minimum standard requirements. The result of this study shows the riots in Jakarta and Papua ought not be categorized as national threats; hence, the internet shutdown was out of proportion. Fake news is part of the price we pay for a free society; thus the article argues that an internet shutdown is not a proper way to combat fakenews. Furthermore, the government has failed to fulfill the minimum standards to justify the internet shutdowns. Access to the internet is a new face of democratic pillars, so blocking internet access without any sufficient legal instruments and correct constitutional interpretation might indicate symptoms of a failure to uphold democracy.

Aborting Kashmeer, erasing Kashmir: A trajectory of storytelling and political censorship in India

ABSTRACT Departing from the extensive internet shutdown (2019–2021) that the Indian government imposed on the annexed state of Jammu and Kashmir, this essay traces a historical trajectory of Kashmir’s invisibilisation in India’s popular imagination. Focusing film and television serial productions from the 1960s onwards, my argument proceeds from the forming of the cinematic master narrative on Kashmir towards the forcefully aborted TV serial Kashmeer (2003). I contend that in order to understand the large public acceptance both of Kashmir’s annexation and its digital closure, we need to engage a more capacious conceptualisation of censorship that captures the variety of its political influences in everyday entertainment and its formative role for audiences. Moving beyond the official interference with imagery and story lines (through the Central Board of Film Certification, CBFB) I examine on the one hand, how the visual framing of Kashmir, and its absence, has been dependent on a structurally, ideologically and economically shifting televisual field that bore interlinked modes of vertical/state and horizontal/populist censorship as well as manipulative corporate intervention. On the other hand, in conjuncture with these conditions, I argue for a stronger consideration of the functional significance, at specific historical moments, of different formats and genres in fictitious storytelling, whose respective logics of production and consumption are themselves carriers of emancipative opening and closure.

The Switched-off Circulation: A Rhetoric of Disconnect

ABSTRACT The author theorizes a rhetoric of disconnect, defined as exigencies and becomings of rhetorical energies in the event of an abrupt, institutionally enforced disruption of digitally networked circulatory routes. A rhetoric of disconnect destabilizes current frameworks for analyzing digital rhetorical circulation and compels us to rethink the interplay between material rhetoricity, circulatory dimensions, and the public’s rhetorical adaptability in a transnational context. The theorization is accompanied by an analysis of the switched-off rhetorical circulation and “rhetorical rerouting” during the extended period of internet shutdown in Xinjiang, China in 2009 and 2010 that lasted 312 days. The author concludes by urging digital rhetoric and new media scholars to reassess assumptions of “always-on” digital connectivity and consider the fragility of digital rhetorical circulation under different forms of global information governmentality.

Access to Internet and Internet Shutdown: A Rights Perspective

Access to the internet is fast becoming a basic right given the plethora of information available on the net these days. In the current scenario, the issue of internet shutdown has become an important concern in India. Internet shutdown affects people socially, psychologically and economically. On one hand, many democratic countries of the world are discussing about digital freedom and human rights, while on the other hand, some countries including India are continuously practicing Internet shutdowns in different parts of their countries. India has become the top country of the world in terms of the numbers of Internet shutdowns. The Internet has become such a prominent source of information for all of us that when Internet connectivity is suspended, many people are affected as they depend on the Internet services for various purposes. Internet shutdown is not only harmful to democracy and governance but also to the economy of the country. Internet shutdowns are direct violations of digital freedom and human rights. The main objective of this paper is to argue that access to internet is a basic right and highlight the problem of Internet shutdown in India and its adverse impact on the lives of Indians. In addition, this paper attempts to highlight a brief history of Internet shutdowns in India. The paper shows how frequent clampdowns on internet affects the economy, as has been the case of Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir thereby highlighting the case for internet freedom for the survival of the economy especially in Digital India.

Mediated democracy and internet shutdown in India

PurposeThis paper aims to highlight the very recent cases of internet shutdown during the creation of Union territory of Jammu and Kashmir and enactment of Citizenship Amendment Act and the detention under Section 66 (A) of Information Technology Act 2000.Design/methodology/approachThis study takes up a broad explorative discussion of the challenges posed to the consolidation of democracy in India due to frequent internet shutdowns for online communication and social media usages.FindingsAs findings, it is narrated that due to politically motivated reasons, India compromises its commitment to the pluralism and diversity in views, in particular, individual rights to freedom of expression and opinion, enshrined in the constitution.Originality/valueRight to freedom of speech and expression has now taken a new shape due to the emergence and availability of the internet that enriches the quality of democracy.