Internationalized Domain Names Research Articles

Understanding and Characterizing the Adoption of Internationalized Domain Names in Practice

Understanding and Characterizing the Adoption of Internationalized Domain Names in Practice

PhishHunter: Detecting camouflaged IDN-based phishing attacks via Siamese neural network

Phishing is one of the significant threats to cybersecurity today, especially when attackers create Internationalized Domain Names (IDN) homographs to engage in phishing activities. IDN homograph takes advantage of some characters in different native languages in internationalized domain names that look similar to legitimate ones. Although researchers have proposed several enlightening detection methods, most of them focused on detecting typosquatting domain names. The ones focused on IDN homograph attack detection either need to enhance the generalization ability or improve detection performance caused by data imbalance. In this paper, we devised a Generative Adversarial Network with a Gradient Penalty (WGAN-GP) algorithm to solve the data imbalance problem. We transform domain names into images and calculate their similarity by Siamese neural networks. Our work can identify whether a domain name is IDN homograph or not effectively. We use the dataset generated based on Unicode tables, publicly available homograph tools, and the Internet traffic captured from the China Education Research Network backbone (CERNET) to evaluate the performance. Experimental results show that the proposed method improves the accuracy and reduces the false positive rate in detecting homograph domain names. In addition, it can also accurately identify typosquatting in phishing pages.

Overview of phishing landscape and homographs in Arabic domain names

AbstractIn this paper, we summarize the latest social engineering phishing attack types with the focus on domain name manipulation. Providing a fake domain is a crucial part of phishing attacks that can be carried out with different techniques such as cybersquatting, typosquattings, or homographs. We argue that homographs with special International Domain Names can be very serious threat for many users that can hardly be identified. We present the analysis of phishing attacks with Arabic domains and conclude that because of the linguistic complexity of the Arabic language and the missing support by the industrial tools expose millions of users to sophisticated domain manipulation based phishing attacks. To reduce the future risk of homograph attacks originating from Arabic internationalized domain names (IDNs) we suggest a change to the registration policy. We also present a browser extension to assist against homographs in current Arabic IDN namespace.

Beyond the Governance Gap in International Domain Name Law: Bringing the UDRP in Line with Internationally Recognized Human Rights

This article maps the substantive international human rights implications of the influential Uniform Domain Names Disputes Resolution Policy (“UDRP”). The UDRP is an international legal framework for resolving disputes between trademark owners and domain name holders, created by Internet Corporation for Domain Names and Numbers (“ICANN”)—a multi-stakeholder non-profit corporation, responsible for managing domain names and addresses globally. I sketch out the human rights implications of the substantial aspects of the UDRP from an international perspective because ICANN has recently added a Core Value of respecting “internationally recognized human rights” to its Bylaws, and the UDRP review is underway in 2020. In this article, I analyze the dominant interpretive approaches of UDRP panelists to illustrate how, from an international human rights perspective, the substantive UDRP elements are currently too broad, and lead to problematic outcomes. While international human rights analysis does not automatically generate pinpoint policy prescription, it provides an additional framework to evaluate ICANN’s policies, expanding the focus and range of responses. I argue that a more precise articulation and reflection of the narrow scope and objectives of the UDRP within its substantial elements (including as they are interpreted and applied) is needed if ICANN is to uphold its human rights Core Value and to ensure that the UDRP is interpreted by the panelists as consistently as possible with international human rights principles. I propose several concrete ways to address the problematic substantive aspects of the UDRP from an international human rights perspective. In particular, the upcoming UDRP reform should include: 1) an explicit reaffirmation of the narrow scope and limited objectives of the UDRP; 2) a clear articulation of the relationship between the UDRP objectives and substantive policy elements; 3) a reaffirmation of the cumulative nature of the bad faith requirement; 4) a revision of affirmative defences available to the respondent; 5) an introduction of an additional defence of an unreasonable delay; 6) an introduction of a choice-of-law provision; and 7) a development of “Uniform Consensus View” at ICANN level to increase consistency and reduce the risk of rogue interpretations of the UDRP by panelists. Ultimately, I propose “returning” the UDRP to its original, narrower objectives to reduce the UDRP decisions’ potential to encroach upon fundamental human rights.

Detection Method of Homograph Internationalized Domain Names with OCR

Detection Method of Homograph Internationalized Domain Names with OCR

Language rights and international domain names

ABSTRACTThis research examines how international domain names (IDNs) have become a proxy solution to multilingualism and language rights on the internet. In 2009, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) approved the initiation of fully internationalised top-level domain names. In this paper, I introduce the process of initiating IDNs, and map out their technological standards and solutions in the praxis of internet governance. Then, I discuss the key players and participants in the initiation of IDNs in relation to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) transition of 2016 and the expiring control of the U.S. government over ICANN. Finally, I discuss the relatively new language rights paradigm, which is gaining ground in cyberspace, coupled with the increasing norm of multilingualism.

What would be the Suitable Domain Name for the IoT Era?

The purpose of this paper is to analyze important issues regarding domain names for the Internet of Things (IoT). Most countries, until recently, have used English dominant domain name for URLs. However, some countries including China and Russia have made attempting Internationalized Domain Names (IDNs).This paper presents the guidelines and implications for the question of what would be the appropriate domain name for the IoT Era.

Enabling multilingual domain names: addressing the challenges of the Arabic script top-level domains

ABSTRACTDomain names are a key to accessing content online. Even though much of the content is multilingual now, the domain names are still mostly limited to Latin characters. The paper focuses on the top-level domains, as a part of the Domain Name System (DNS), and explains the community-driven effort to make these multilingual using the internationalized domain name framework. The case of Arabic script is presented, highlighting the challenges faced for the script community in developing specific rules and recommendations to ensure the validity and uniqueness of labels for the DNS Root zone. The paper highlights the tension between enabling broadest expression with the domain names to facilitate the linguistic community while simultaneously adhering to the conservative procedure set out by the technical community to ensure the security and stability of the Root zone. The paper finally presents the details and evaluation of the proposed solution for the top-level domain names in Arabic script, addressing the end-user needs while minimizing the end-user confusion.

Is '.com' international? The .com gTLD: an analysis of its global nature through the prism of jurisdiction

There is a perception that .com domain names are international. However, what does it mean to be an international domain name? And how are conflicts concerning .com domain names tackled across the myriad of different jurisdictions? This article analyses the framework of the .com top-level domain and attempts to describe how and if decisions of different jurisdictions are enforced when the central object of litigation is a .com domain name.

A global reference model of the domain name system

The domain name system (DNS) is a crucial component of the Internet. At this time, the DNS is facing major changes such as the introduction of DNSSEC and Internationalized Domain Name extensions (IDNs), the adoption of IPv6 and the upcoming extension of new generic top-level domains. These changes can significantly impact the behavior of the DNS. This paper presents a global DNS reference model for predicting DNS traffic behavior under specific conditions. The quantitative reference model is intended to be used for analyzing “what-if” scenarios—for example, how would DNS query rates at the recursive and authoritative name servers increase if DNSSEC validation errors were to cause more ServFail responses to be sent to DNS clients? The DNS reference model takes into account all relevant components present in the DNS architecture. Real-world data from recursive resolvers is analyzed statistically in order to characterize the system variables that describe query behavior at each of the independent system components. In addition, experimental results that characterize DNS client behavior and data from the literature are used to model the behavior of authoritative name servers. The reference model is validated by comparing the model predictions with the behavior observed in real-world operations. The validation results demonstrate the accuracy of the model predictions. A what-if scenario dealing with the effect of ServFail responses on DNS traffic flow is also presented to demonstrate the applicability of the model.

Recent Developments in the Domain Name System

Domain Name System (DNS) makes it possible to access information from host computers and to send and receive messages anywhere on the Internet. It is a distributed set of databases residing in computers around the world that contain IP address mapped to corresponding domain names. Currently, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages DNS and designs policies for its operations. Recently, DNS has witnessed phenomenal developments in terms of technical, operational, and managerial decisions which have made significant impact on Internet-related policy issues such as intellectual property, privacy, e-commerce, and cyber- security. This paper surveys remarkable developments that Domain Name System has undergone in recent times. The advancements particularly advancements in the areas of international domain names, managerial decision of expanding generic top-level domain space, deployment of DNSSEC protocol at the root servers, approval of Triple X top-level domain, domain resolution policy, present status of contractual compliance programs and privacy of domain name holders have been presented in detail.

A Study on Procedural Problems of International Domain Name Dispute Resolution; Focusing on the Forum Shopping and One-member Panel Problems

A Study on Procedural Problems of International Domain Name Dispute Resolution; Focusing on the Forum Shopping and One-member Panel Problems

Financial Domain Names - How the Internet Can Help the International Financial Industry Overcome Shortcomings in Trust and Transparency While Improving Speed and Efficiency

It is a coincidence that major reforms are now under way in both financial infrastructure and the Internet. Governments are in the process of overhauling the regulatory framework in response to the 2008 economic crisis. The Internet itself is at a crucial stage of development with the introduction of new top level domains and internationalized domain names that facilitate the use of a wide variety of scripts. The interface between the Internet and the global financial system requires urgent attention. Legacy systems, both on the Internet side and on the financial side, are unable to cope with the task of protecting customers while meeting the current requirements of speed and low transaction costs. They are poorly adapted to the international scope and volume of today’s financial transactions. A fundamental reform of the Internet naming system is well under way. Industries such as the financial services sector can link into Internet governance initiatives, increase security and productivity and integrate industry processes with the operation of a global Internet. As is the case in financial industry reforms, the Internet reforms are subject to political lobbying and economic interests. For this reason, it is important that the financial industry takes a proactive attitude to developing its own systems, rather than having them imposed by governments.

Variant Chinese Domain Name Resolution

Many efforts in past years have been made to lower the linguistic barriers for non-native English speakers to access the Internet. Internet standard RFC 3490, referred to as IDNA (Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications), focuses on access to IDNs (Internationalized Domain Names) in a range of scripts that is broader in scope than the original ASCII. However, the use of character variants that have similar appearances and/or interpretations could create confusion. A variant IDL (Internationalized Domain Label), derived from an IDL by replacing some characters with their variants, should match the original IDL; and thus a variant IDN does. In RFC 3743, referred to as JET (Joint Engineering Team) Guidelines, it is suggested that zone administrators model this concept of equivalence as an atomic IDL package. When an IDL is registered, an IDL package is created that contains its variant IDLs generated according to the zone-specific Language Variant Tables (LVTs). In addition to the registered IDL, the name holder can request the domain registry to activate some of the variant IDLs, free or by an extra fee. The activated variant IDLs are stored in the zone files, and thus become resolvable. However, an issue of scalability arises when there is a large number of variant IDLs to be activated. In this article, the authors present a resolution protocol that resolves the variant IDLs into the registered IDL, specifically for Han character variants. Two Han characters are said to be variants of each other if they have the same meaning and are pronounced the same. Furthermore, Han character variants usually have similar appearances. It is not uncommon that a Chinese IDL has a large number of variant IDLs. The proposed protocol introduces a new RR (resource record) type, denoted as VarIdx RR, to associate a variant expression of the variant IDLs with the registered IDL. The label of the VarIdx RR, denoted as the variant index, is assigned by an indexing function that is designed to give the same value to all of the variant IDLs enumerated by the variant expression. When one of the variant IDLs is accessed, Internet applications can compute the variant index, look up the VarIdx RRs, and resolve the variant IDL into the registered IDL. The authors examine two sets of Chinese IDLs registered in TWNIC and CNNIC, respectively. The results show that for a registered Chinese IDL, a very small number of VarIdx RRs, usually one or two, are sufficient to activate all of its variant IDLs. The authors also represent a Web redirection service that employs the proposed resolution protocol to redirect a URL addressed by a variant IDN to the URL addressed by the registered IDN. The experiment results show that the proposed protocol successfully resolves the variant IDNs into the registered IDNs.

Internationalized access to domain names: a review of methods and issues

PurposeThis article aims to understand the opportunities as well as the challenges posed by the methods for internationalized access to domain names.Design/methodology/approachThe paper first provides background information on how domain names are resolved in the domain name system (DNS). It then reviews the various methods for internationalized access to domain names with a focus on their technical implementation and potential problems. Finally, it discusses several important language and policy issues surrounding the methods.FindingsThe methods proposed for internationalized access to domain names can be classified into two groups: ASCII‐compatible encoding; and multilingual keywords. ASCII‐compatible encoding methods, such as the internationalized domain name (IDN) standards specified by the internet engineering task force, seem technically sound since they do not affect existing DNS operations, but they have some structural limitations. Multilingual keyword methods are rather simple and intuitive to use but they are not compatible with one another and so may return different results from the same multilingual keyword query. Also, both ASCII‐compatible encoding and multilingual keyword methods can raise some important issues associated with languages and policies, such as linguistic problems, disputes over IDNs, and multilingual homographs.Originality/valueThe issues discussed in this paper need to be addressed for broad and seamless implementation of the methods for internationalized access to domain names across various languages. The review of the methods and associated issues can prove helpful to those from internet users and domain name registrants to domain name registries and registrars.

IDNs: Straightforward Technical Problem or Machiavellian Nightmare?

Three of the leading figures trying to solve the technical aspect of internationalized domain names (IDNs) - Internet domain names containing non-ASCII characters, such as those used in Arabic or Chinese - have been alternately hopeful and pessimistic recently. Vint Cerf, chairman of the ICANN board, says he's more optimistic about finally deploying a globally workable IDN solution than he's been in a year. Cary Karp, director of Internet strategy and technology at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, paints a darker picture of disingenuous and cynical maneuvering by parties with axes to grind. And John Klensin, former chairman of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), says his outlook on one of the global Internet community's most vexing and longest-running problems depends on the developments on any given day

REGAP: A Tool for Unicode-Based Web Identity Fraud Detection

ABSTRACT We anticipate the widespread usage of an internationalized resource identifier (IRI) 1 or internationalized domain name (IDN) 2 on the web as complement to universal resource identifier (URI). IRI/IDN is composed of characters in a subset of Unicode, such that a Unicode attack 3 to IRI/IDN could happen. Hence, visually or semantically, certain phishing IRI/IDNs may show high similarity to the real ones. The potential phishing attacks based on this strategy are very likely to happen in the near future with the boosting utilization of IRI/IDN. We invented a method to detect such phishing attack. We constructed a unicode character similarity list (UC-SimList) based on char-char visual and semantic similarities and use a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) 4 to identify the potential IRI/IDN-based phishing patterns. We implemented a phishing IRI/IDN pattern generation tool, REGAP, by which phishing IRI/IDN patterns can be generated into regular expressions (RE) for phishing IRI/IDN detection. We ...

IDN server proxy architecture for Internationalized Domain Name resolution and experiences with providing Web services

The composition of traditional domain names are restricted to ASCII letters, digits, and hyphens (abbreviated as LDH). This makes it difficult for many to use their native language to name and access their Internet hosts. The IETF IDN (Internationalized Domain Name) Working Group proposes a mechanism, IDNA (Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications), for internationalized access to multilingual domain names. The proposal uses a preparation process that converts a Unicode IDN into an ACE (ASCII Compatible Encoding) string that uses only LDH. Thus, applications can look up the ACE string by using the existing DNS infrastructure. However, some of the domain name strings embedded in multilingual content do not have any charset tag so they cannot appropriately be converted into ACE strings. We noticed that many Internet applications allow users to use non-ASCII domain names. We were motivated to design an architecture for IDN resolution as well as to minimize the cost of modifying legacy Internet applications. We specifically focus on designing an IDN server proxy, which is located on the domain name server side, to handle domain names in multiple encodings. In this article, we study several architecture design issues including detection of charset encoding, routing of non-ACE IDN lookup requests, and so on.With respect to these design issues, we present an IDN server proxy architecture which stores ACE IDNs in domain name servers. Note that traditional domain name servers can be used without modification. An IDN server proxy, called Octopus, is employed on the domain name server side. Octopus converts a non-ACE IDN string into ACE upon receiving an IDN lookup request from remote users or autonomous systems. The ACE string is then forwarded to backend domain name servers (where the traditional domain names and ACE IDNs are stored) for further processing. This allows Internet users to access IDNs without having to upgrade their software.Based on the design and implementation of Octopus, we deployed a CDN (Chinese domain name) trial in July 2002. In this article, we present the results of testing Octopus IDN lookup functions as well as our experiences in providing CDN Web services. Several types of errors can occur if applications are unable to handle IDNs adequately. For example, a Web browser may erroneously parse an IDN within a URL. Many legacy Web servers are unable to process the IDN of a virtual host. Web application servers may have trouble completing some actions such as redirecting Web pages to alternative Web pages. Our studies help service providers understand potential problems when non-ASCII domain names are used and the best common practice at this stage. As well, the experiences give some guidance for software developers to develop IDNA-compliant Internet applications.

Territorialism versus Universalism: International Intellectual Property Law in the Internationalized Domain Name System

This paper explores how the present international intellectual property law can be applied to resolve the new conflicts arising from the internationalized domain name system (DNS), in which non‐Latin characters are permissible for direct use in domain names. It also analyzes the two approaches to address this issue: one approach that territorializes the rights and disputes on the borderless Internet, and another that universalizes the rights on the global medium. By presenting a comprehensive study with respect to the relevant international intellectual property law and practices, this paper attempts to research whether a balanced solution to the conflict between the legal system and the technical system could be sought out through maintaining the principle of territoriality of intellectual property protection, and it also examines the alternative procedure built in the DNS for the resolution of intellectual property controversies, namely the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy, and assesses whether the alternative procedure that actually supersedes the principle of territoriality is consistent with the existing international intellectual property law and interoperable with the internationalized DNS.

Internationalizing the internet

By its very nature, the Internet is a global medium that touches billions of individuals whose vocabulary does not derive from the Anglo-Saxon tradition, and whose alphabet is not that of the ancient Romans. The Internet Engineering Task Force's recent approval of a standard for domain name internationalization. This means, in effect, that it will soon be possible to create domain names in non-ASCII characters, such as Chinese or Cyrillic script. The ability to create internationalized domain names speaks directly to the issue of localization - the ability to present a Web site using the target audience's language, style, graphics, and such cultural conventions as currencies, dates, and units of measure. Unicode, by far the most powerful tool for globalizing Internet data, provides a unique number for every character, regardless of platform, program or language.