International Water Research Articles

RAINWATER HARVESTING AND LEAKAGE REDUCTION AS ALTERNATIVES TO OPTIMISE FRESHWATER MANAGEMENT

The need of water is a reality for human life. Due to climate change, rainfall patterns are being altered and there is a growing conscience of the need for water collection in society. Any additional water could help to mitigate daily needs and therefore, this study has determined the water provision that could be determined for each population based on rainwater collection "in situ". It has been estimated in several cities in Spain, which are representative of the peninsular and island climatology, according to the respective roof surface and annual precipitation. On the other hand, it is well known that water supply networks have leaks. The International Water Association (IWA) defined a series of indicative parameters, including the IFE/ILI parameter, which has been incorporated into Spanish regulations, specifically in RD 3/2023 of 10 January. Consequently, this study has also determined the aforementioned parameter for the same cities. It has also been calculated what the improvement in water savings could mean by applying corrective measures and sustained plans for repairing leaks and optimising pressures.

Hydro-geochemistry and age-dependent health risk assessment of nitrate, nitrite, and fluoride in health facilities water: a multivariate analysis.

Groundwater from alluvial fan plains is the prevailing water source, especially for arid/semiarid regions, but its contamination poses substantial risks to water supply and public health. The recent study aims to assess the hydro-geochemistry, distribution, and potential health risks of NO3-, NO2-, and F- concentrations in the groundwater of previously unexplored health facilities in District Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan. In total, 75 groundwater samples were evaluated for NO3-, NO2-, and F- levels as well as pH, EC, TDS, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, Na+, Fe, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, taste, odor, color, and turbidity. The Durav graph shows that the water type is Na-HCO3-Ca, with Na and HCO3 dominant, weak acids > strong acids, and alkaline ions > alkalis. Results revealed that drinking water samples (21.73% and 20%) taken from Tehsil Mailsi, and the Basic Health Unit (BHU) exceeded the WHO standard (1.5mg/L) for F- concentration, respectively. Moreover, the mean chronic daily intake (CDI) of F- was 0.044, 0.018, and 0.02mg/kg/day in children, men, and women, respectively. Similarly, the average CDI of NO3- was 0.113, 0.046, and 0.050 in children, men, and women, respectively, and the respective values of NO2- were 0.004, 0.001, and 0.001. The NO2- shows a significant range of hazard quotient (HQ) (0.0-1.172) in children. The range of HQ for F- was 0.0-3.114, 0.0-1.290, and 0.0-1.389 in children, men, and women, respectively. Additionally, the health risks analysis revealed an HQ > 1.0 for children in groundwater, indicating a potential carcinogenic risk from the F-. Pearson correlation and PCA analysis found a significant positive correlation (0.8) between NO3- and NO2- and a negative correlation (0.3) between F- and HCO3-. These findings highlight the need for groundwater treatment in healthcare facilities prior to water consumption. Enforcing international and national drinking water standards in healthcare units is vital to strengthening services and providing equitable access to safe drinking water. Legislative and efficient water management measures must be taken for the protection of public health.

Beyond international water law – unconventional approaches to conventional foundations in times of global crises

This article argues that there is a large gap between the aspirations of international water law and the management of transboundary rivers and lakes necessary to address the existential challenges that have arisen in the twenty-first century. In addition to this gap in practice, these include climate destruction, the holistic view of river basins which includes environmental values and social justice, a more sceptical view of large dams and diversions, and the collapse of the post-World War II idea of a global community of shared values. Thus, international water law requires a transformative change to meet these challenges. New treaties and conventions are not needed. Instead, we need to move beyond traditional international water law. We call for innovation in three main areas: (1) the prevailing approach to this area of international law should be reconceptualised to more fully embrace global issues in ways that enhance community-building approach broadly anchored in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); (2) the normative legal framework, especially procedural obligations, needs to be enhanced, in part through a more invigorated rule of due diligence; and (3) the current regulatory silos that apply to water law need to be better integrated across the layers of international/national law to better represent and to protect the communities of the watershed across the basin.

International water conventions, the exploitation of trans-boundary rivers and the Nile water dispute among Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt

Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt entered into dispute since Ethiopia began the construction of the Renaissance Dam along the Blue Nile in 2011. This article is aimed at assessing the core facts about water conventions, the use of trans-boundary rivers and the main argument points of Egypt and Sudan against Ethiopia's use right of the Nile. Data were obtained from conventions and laws, study reports and television interviews. Percent and ratios were used for quantifying data. The 1997 UN Water Convention, having seven criterions for equitable water use by riparian nations, is a better platform for the negotiation on the Nile water. Ethiopia contributes 86.52 billion m3 to the Nile water although Egypt's contribution is negligible. Despite the built-up of 3 huge dams by Egypt and over 10 by Sudan, these countries aggressively contest the Renaissance Dam of Ethiopia. Egypt diverts about 46 billion m3 water for irrigation. Turk, an upstream nation (alike Ethiopia in the Nile basin), built 11 dams along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers with rare contest from the downstream nations. The existence of ‘adequate rainfall’ and ‘other rivers’ in Ethiopia, the colonial treaties, the Nile as the only resource, and the impact of the Renaissance Dam are among the main points of argument of Egypt and Sudan against Ethiopia's use right of the Nile. The Nile water use by Ethiopia is inevitable as 73.7 % of the rivers' flow, 65.3 % of the hydropower and 50.6 % of the irrigation potential of all Ethiopian rivers is in the Nile basin; besides, significant share of the population has no electric service (>60), no pure water access (42.7 %) and is below poverty line (29.6 %). Thus, the three countries need to be flexible for the ‘give and take’ principle-based negotiation and ensuring the equitable use of the Nile water.

Determination of regulated perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water according to Directive 2020/2184/EU.

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are chemical compounds that have been widely used in industry and manufacture. Occurrence, together with persistence and recent toxicological effects data, has promoted the regulation of 20 PFAS (carboxylic and sulfonic) acids in drinking water through the recent Directive 2020/2184/EU. This Regulation included PFAS with different carbon chain lengths (from C4 to C13) and limited the total PFAS concentration (as sum) to a maximum of 0.1µg/L, for which law-enforcement analytical methods are required. In this work, three different methodologies have been developed and evaluated as regards their performance to determine those 20 PFAS in tap and bottled water, based on on-line and off-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) and direct injection. In all cases, ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used as a determination technique. Off-line SPE with Oasis Weak Anion Exchange (WAX) cartridges provided the best results in terms of limits of quantification (LOQ ≤ 0.3ng/L) and accuracy (R ≥ 70%) in drinking water samples. On-line SPE and direct injection presented some drawbacks such as background contamination problems and lower accuracies for the least polar compounds. This off-line SPE methodology was then applied to the analysis of 46 drinking water samples (11 commercial bottled samples, 23 Spanish and 12 international tap water samples). Ten PFAS were quantified in such samples at concentrations and detection frequencies ranging from 0.1 to 20.1ng/L and 2 to 91%, respectively. However, the sum concentration did not surpass the established limit in any sample.

A proposal for an academy to deliver capacity building in agricultural water management with particular reference to irrigation

AbstractThe paper proposes a capacity‐building programme (CBP) on water for food/agricultural water management in sub‐Saharan Africa contained within an academy on the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. The paper is informed by a study funded by the International Water Management Institute and supported by the Water Research Commission of South Africa. It also reports on a stakeholder consultation workshop on 26 April 2023 in Pretoria, South Africa. It identifies key components of capacity‐building design and delivery, including six teaching and learning pathways. These are managed ad hoc self‐directed learning; continuing professional development; short‐course training; vocational college training; part‐time online postgraduate training; and full‐time in‐person postgraduate training. The accompanying budget analysis is speculative based on the size of the student cohorts per year for each of the six CBP pathways. The total budget of the academy is estimated at approximately US$60 million for a 10‐year programme training 2,800 individuals. This works out at an average per‐student cost of US$21,600. One question, debated at the stakeholder workshop but unresolved, was the emphasis on irrigation versus the agricultural water management continuum including rainfed agriculture.

Groundwater quality analysis in Hail region of northwest Saudi Arabia based on physicochemical investigation

The acquired groundwater data from seventeen wells were hydrochemically analyzed for Sulfate, Chloride, Ammonia, Nitrate, Nitrite, pH, EC (Electrical Conductivity), TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), total hardness, and total alkalinity concentrations and then compared to the national and international standards. The results range as follows: pH (6.65–8.26), EC (382–1214 μS·cm−1), Total hardness (72–310 ppm), TDS (258–775 ppm), Total alkalinity (54–138 ppm), Cl- (19–202 ppm), Ammonia (NH3) (0.0 to 1.5 mg/liter), Nitrate (NO3) (4.7 to 65.6 ppm), Nitrite (NO2) (0.007 to 0.05 ppm), and sulfate (SO4) (29–278 ppm). About 70.58 % of the study area’s groundwater samples have TDS levels below 500 mg/l, which are considered safe for drinking. The EC of the groundwater found that 100 % of the samples fall within the allowed level. Based on these results, the groundwater quality is suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes in Hail region. Hence, this research shows that using GIS and chemical analysis of groundwater could be useful tools for the decision-making process of local and international authorities and water resources management.

Gendered Practices in Transboundary Water Negotiations

Abstract This paper analyzes how practices in water diplomacy, and in particular in international water negotiations, are gendered and with what effects. We conduct a comparative analysis of three intergovernmental decision-making forums on international rivers: the Nile Technical Advisory Committee, the Chu-Talas Water Commission, and the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine. These three cases demonstrate how gender is relational and creates situations in which gendered norms and values are strengthened, challenged, and changed, and sometimes used strategically to gain more power. In addition, two specific dynamics were observed: first, aligning with gendered stereotypes, confrontational practices in water negotiations are perceived as masculine and cooperative ones as feminine. Second, women’s participation in negotiations leads to both male and female negotiators adapting their behavior, resulting in a tendency towards less openly confrontational dynamics in more gender-balanced settings.

The role of science in international water law

ABSTRACT The management of international watercourses requires both scientific input and transnational cooperation. This paper examines the role of science in the field of international water law and how scientific data, techniques, and methods may be used to bestow the legal framework with greater clarity and precision. In this regard, this paper demonstrates how the two primary obligations of international water law – the no-harm principle and the doctrine of equitable and reasonable utilization – are capable of conceptualization and application in a scientific manner. Examples of interdisciplinary approaches and expert commissions are utilized to demonstrate the role of science in practice.

Perspectives and Prospects for International Water Law in the ASEAN Region: Is There an ASEAN Way to Transboundary Water Cooperation Under International Law?

Around the world there are over 300 transboundary watercourses and around 500 transboundary groundwater bodies shared by two or more States. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region contains forty-one transboundary surface and groundwater bodies shared between ten ASEAN States and the five non-ASEAN States at its periphery. As transboundary water resources they are governed under international law found in a series of layers across a spectrum of bindingness (customary international law, global–regional–multilateral–bilateral agreements and non-binding instruments). Through an analysis of the international law relevant to the governance of transboundary water resources in the region, this study seeks to explore the ASEAN approach to transboundary water governance under international law. While this analysis finds that there is no uniform practice across the region, the paper concludes with possible paths forward for the legalization of transboundary water cooperation.

Analyzing the Suitability of the Strategic Economic Leverage Developed in Non‐Mega‐Sport Tourism Events to the Spectator Profile

To maximize the economic benefits, a priori, the destination’s strategic objectives must be defined, and the design of actions to achieve them through the event must be planned, implemented, and analyzed. Therefore, this investigation aimed to analyze the strategic economic leverage developed for two international open water events considering the profile of their nonresident spectators (NRS). This study adopted a mixed research methodology, performing a qualitative and quantitative analysis. Data collection combined documental research, direct observation, semistructured interviews, and questionnaires. The actions implemented in the events covered the short- and long-term economic strategic objectives. Yet, none of the events’ attributes was associated with NRS’ city recommendation. Additionally, accommodation and food/beverage categories concentrated most of NRS??? expenditures. To activate NRS’ spending in entertainment and local commerce, more creativity is needed than the simple distribution of tourist services information. Also, strategic economic leverage should design actions to increase local companies networking, and develop programs to extend the spectators’ stay through a bundling approach, amplifying the activation of the local resources. This study combined the organizational perspective of strategic economic leverage and the profile of NRS, allowing a more comprehensive knowledge to create strategies consistent with the specificities of NRS’ consumption.

Managing the Santa Cruz River: Prospects for a Future Binational Minute

This paper examines the prospects for developing and implementing a binational water management agreement for the transboundary Santa Cruz River that crosses the US–Mexico boundary near the sister cities of Nogales, Sonora–Nogales, Arizona. After considering the geography, history, socio-economic context, and binational agreements affecting utilization of the Santa Cruz River, we review the conditions influencing recent binational progress on another transboundary river, the Tijuana River. Specifically, we ask what conditions created a favorable environment in which a binational agreement for management of the Tijuana River Watershed (TRW) was developed, what specific actions by relevant policy officials took place, and how the final agreement was reached. We then compare the dynamics that unfolded in the TRW with conditions in the Santa Cruz River to identify obstacles hindering progress towards achieving an International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) agreement (Minute) on shared management of the Santa Cruz River in its international reach. We find that the required political conditions that favored an agreement on the Tijuana River are not yet met on the Santa Cruz, although several favorable conditions do exist. We conclude with an assessment of current prospects for advancing binational cooperation that can inform discussion of how an IBWC Minute could be drafted to address water resource management issues in the Santa Cruz River Basin.

Agricultural-Derived organochlorine pesticide residues impact on macroinvertebrate community in an Afrotropical Stream

This study evaluated the impact of pesticide application through agricultural activities in Chanchaga River, Nigeria, using macroinvertebrate data sets obtained for six months (September 2021–February 2022). Four (4) stations, characterized by various agricultural activities, were sampled along the river. Analysis of the water samples for organochlorine pesticide residues (OCP) using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) at the peak of the two seasons revealed a high concentration of eleven isomers of organochlorine, which ranged from 0.01 to 0.81 μg/L, and a mean concentration that was above international drinking water standards set by the World Health Organization, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, and the European Union. The mean concentration of detected OCP was recorded as DDT (0.72 μg/L), Dieldrin (0.59 μg/L), Paraquat (0.54 μg/L), Aldrin (0.49 μg/L), Metribuzin (0.48 μg/L), Butachlor (0.47 μg/L), Alachlor (0.28 μg/L), Atrazine (0.23 μg/L), Phenol (0.10 μg/L), Endrin (0.09 μg/L), and Benzene (0.08 μg/L). Atrazine, alachlor, metribuzin, aldrin, phenol, and endrin showed significant differences across the two seasons (p < 0.05), while dieldrin, butachlor, paraquat, benzene, and DDT showed no significant differences across the two seasons (p > 0.05). A total of 622 macroinvertebrate individuals from 19 species in 18 families from 8 orders were collected. More individuals were collected during the dry season (58.17 %) and the wet season (41.83 %). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) ordination revealed a strong relationship between species abundance and some organochlorine pesticide residues such as DDT, endrin, metribuzin, atrazine, benzene, and dieldrin. The response of macroinvertebrates to OCP indicates that Chanchaga River is a disturbed river, and the indicator organisms (Lestes sp., Coenagrion sp., Zyxomma sp., Appasus sp., Chironomus sp., Lymnaea natalensis, and Caridina nililotica) can also be used for further biomonitoring.

Framework and Function of Integrated Water Resources Management in Support of Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development Goal 6 addresses water issues, and Target 6.5.1 sets a goal to implement integrated water resources management (IWRM) at all levels. The reporting system shows slow progress, which indicates that changes are needed. The assessments focus mainly on the function of IWRM as a framework of institutional arrangements and less on its function as a process for water resources management, with emphasis on practices like multi-objective planning and stakeholder participation. While IWRM has a rich body of knowledge and wide recognition among water management communities, it is still misunderstood and criticized by some stakeholders, even after 25 years of explanations. While its support base appears stable, indications of fatigue and waning interest in IWRM point to the need for fresh explanations and demonstrations. These can be facilitated by distinguishing the functionalities of IWRM as a framework and a process. SDG data focuses on its framework function, which generally tracks the status of environmental governance in countries. Case studies provide better indicators of its use as a process, but their narratives may not be persuasive. If educators adopt the framework and function model of IWRM advocated in the paper, the narratives can improve and facilitate greater acceptance. Advancement of IWRM implementation to support the Sustainable Development Goals requires continued support by the Global Water Partnership, which might be bolstered by cooperation with international water associations for standardization, accreditation, and credentialing. IWRM’s future implementation will also depend on its adoption among educators and on interdisciplinary approaches.

Theoretical evaluation of integrated Basin at Risk (iBAR) method for international water conflict-cooperation analysis

Comprehensive analysis of water interactions enhances understanding of the dynamic and complex conditions in transboundary river basins. The Basin at Risk (BAR) method is among common methods to analyze water interactions. The integrated Basin at Risk (iBAR) method has recently enhanced BAR. As an extension of BAR, iBAR emphasizes hidden drivers of water conflict and cooperation, whereas BAR includes visible ones. The novelty of iBAR is grounded in Johan Galtung’s theory of violence and the concept of positive peace. This method emphasizes the importance of capturing the hidden aspects of water conflicts as well as the concept of positive peace in water interactions. While iBAR has made significant improvements in addressing water conflicts, some challenges remain. This paper provides a review and theoretical analysis of iBAR. Initially, the iBAR development phases are reviewed in terms of positive peace conceptualization and contextualization in water interactions. Following this, the theoretical background of this method is discussed. The results suggest that the iBAR method could be further enhanced by revising concepts of positive peace, social justice, and environmental justice in water interactions.

Exploring strategic multi-leveraging of sport tourism events: An action-research study

Strategic planning of sport events should promote the maximisation of local communities' benefits. Among other dimensions of interest to the host destination's stakeholders, given the aim of sustainable development, sport events leveraging must integrate economic, social and environmental perspectives, justifying its multidimensional extensiveness. The general objective of this study was to stimulate and understand the process of planning and implementing strategic multi-leverage of international open water swimming events hosted in Portugal, in 2022, addressing the economic, social, environmental, partners and sport dimensions.This study employed a case study approach within an action-research methodology. The research design covered three action-research stages: planning, implementation and analysis. The data collection combined nominal group sessions, field observation, document analysis and interviews. The qualitative analysis used the triangulation of the data collected, and the content analysis was performed using the NVivo software.Actions were strategically planned targeting economic, social, environmental, partners, and sport dimensions, albeit with a prominent focus on economic and sport leverage. Excluding sport, the implementation of strategic actions ensured all dimensions' operationalisation. Six constraints (e.g. little adherence from local partners) and three drivers (e.g. commitment and authority of the leverage coordinating team) conditioned the strategic leverage implementation. The strategic planning of future sport events should outline actions that intensify the destination’s image, focusing the attention of stakeholders on valuing the natural attributes. This study strengthened knowledge about the multi-leverage approach applied to two sport events, reinforcing the need to implement cross-leveraging among the aforementioned dimensions to enhance the success of strategic leverage.

The World Heritage Convention, Protected Areas and Rivers: Challenges for Representation and Implications for International Water Cooperation

Given the dire state of health of rivers worldwide and their significant heritage values, there is a need to consider their current representation in protected areas inscribed under the World Heritage Convention and identify challenges and opportunities for increasing their coverage. This study identifies a total of 153 natural, mixed natural/cultural and cultural landscape World Heritage sites that recognise rivers as a source of Outstanding Universal Value. There are challenges associated with the recognition of river sites as World Heritage, but further nominations could be encouraged through amendments to the World Heritage Convention Operational Guidelines to allow greater discretion to be exercised in relation to integrity requirements at inscription and to explicitly acknowledge freshwater use as a basis for recognising mixed natural/cultural and cultural landscape sites. There is also an opportunity to encourage further nomination of river sites by recognising the important implications of World Heritage inscription for international water cooperation. Together, these recommendations provide a path forward for enhancing the place of rivers in World Heritage protected areas.

Comparative performance assessment of pilot irrigation schemes in Uganda

Irrigation schemes across sub-Saharan Africa are constructed with the intention of increasing agricultural production to increase food security, reduce poverty and improve economic growth. However, most of these schemes are not performing as expected. This study therefore, diagnosed performance gaps in the pilot irrigation schemes of Mubuku and Doho in Uganda and analysed sustainable improvement options. Data was collected through systematic review of literature and scheme data, direct measurements at the schemes, field surveys, inspections, and key informant interviews. For each scheme, data for climate, irrigation, flow measurements, crop yields and farm gate prices were collected. Comparative indicators of agricultural output, water supply, financial and physical sustainability were used to assess scheme performance using standard approaches by International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The findings showed that the schemes were not performing optimally with crop yields being far below the attainable potential. The major contributing factors to the low performance were low water use efficiency and low agricultural output. Poor flow control, poor water distribution, and poor on-farm water application contributed to low water use efficiency. Low agricultural production was attributed to poor crop yields resulting from poor agronomic practices, poor irrigation scheduling and low produce prices. The financial self-sufficiency indicator pointed to farmers’ inability to operate and maintain irrigation schemes effectively. Improving the irrigation schemes performance requires a multidisciplinary approach targeting the improvement water use efficiency and agricultural output.

Organophosphate pesticide residue impact on water quality and changes in macroinvertebrate community in an Afrotropical stream flowing through farmlands.

River Chanchaga has experienced significant agricultural practices around its catchment, which involved the indiscriminate use of pesticides. However, residents of the study area are not well aware of the negative impact of pesticides on water quality and macroinvertebrates. In this study, the first report on the influence of organophosphate pesticide contamination on the abundance of the macroinvertebrate community was provided. Sampling for the determination of organophosphate pesticide residues was carried out during the peak of the two seasons, while macroinvertebrates and physicochemical variables were observed for 6 months. We examined 11 organophosphate pesticide residues using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, 12 water quality variables, and 625 macroinvertebrate individuals. The concentration of recorded organophosphate pesticide residues ranged from 0.01 to 0.52 μg/L. From the Canonical Correspondence Analysis plot, malathion, chlorine, and paraffin show a positive correlation with Unima sp., Hydrocanthus sp., Chironomus sp., and Potadoma sp. At station 3, depth shows a positive correlation with Biomphalaria sp. and Zyxomma sp., indicating poor water quality as most of these macroinvertebrates are indicators of water pollution. Diuron and carbofuran show a negative correlation with Lestes sp. and Pseudocloeon sp., and these are pollution-sensitive macroinvertebrates. The total mean concentration of organophosphate pesticide residues was above international drinking water standards set by the World Health Organization except for paraffin, chlorpyrifos, and diuron. In conclusion, the observations recorded from this research are useful in managing pesticide applications around the river catchment.

The concept of estimating the risk of water losses in the water supply network

One of the methods of increasing the availability of drinking water is to reduce water losses in existing water supply systems (WSS). The need to manage water losses in WSS is highlighted in the new Directive (EU) 2020/2184 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption. It was indicated that the main cause of water losses is underinvestment in the maintenance and renovation of network infrastructure. The new legal provisions require a risk assessment to be carried out in the water supply system, taking into account the risk of leaks. The paper presents the concept of estimating the risk of water losses in the water supply network using the three-parameter risk assessment method and risk maps. The framework of the water balance proposed by International Water Association (IWA) were also presented, including the Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) for assessment of the water supply system Leakage Performance Category (LPC). The analysis was carried out for a water supply system used by 200,000 inhabitants. The LPC of the system was determined based on the ILI index. Then the water supply network pipes that could potentially be a source of leaks were identified. The analysis of the risk of water losses for the examined pipes allowed to determine which pipes should be first chosen to reduce the risk of water losses, i.e. active search for leaks.