International Peacekeeping Research Articles

Experiential Learning and Peacekeeping

ABSTRACT Experiential learning, at its core, is a self-driven process of acquiring knowledge from past experiences and applying it to new situations. This study delves into this process within the realm of peacekeeping, where the learning experiences of troop-contributing countries are particularly unique. These peacekeepers navigate the dual role of countering armed insurgencies through UN peacekeeping missions abroad while simultaneously addressing domestic security challenges through counterinsurgency (COIN) operations. Although extensive research has examined how COIN experiences shape peacekeeping strategies, the translation of peacekeeping experiential learning to domestic contexts remains to be determined. By focusing on India as a case study, this research illustrates that peacekeepers are open to learning from their peacekeeping experiences. However, the successful application of this learning in domestic settings is determined by more than just their capacity to learn. It is also shaped by the nature of the supportive learning environment that may sometimes create a gap between international peacekeeping and its application to domestic operations.

Contextualising Australia’s Role in UN Peacekeeping Operations: A Comprehensive Analysis from 1947 to Present

Purpose: This scholarly article rigorously analyses Australia’s engagement in United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations from 1947 to the present, focusing on the nation's substantial contributions, significant policy transitions, and the broader implications for international relations and global governance frameworks. Materials and Methods: Utilizing a qualitative methodological approach, this study systematically reviews over sixty peacekeeping missions involving Australia, drawing upon a diverse array of primary and secondary sources, including governmental reports, academic journals, and UN documentation. The timeframe spans critical historical moments, beginning with Australia’s initial involvement in international peacekeeping initiatives in the late 1940s and evolving through distinct geopolitical eras, including the Cold War, post-Cold War period, and contemporary conflicts (Baldwin et al., 2022; McDonald, 2023). The analysis is grounded in a constructivist framework intertwined with realism, allowing for a nuanced understanding of how Australia’s peacekeeping roles reflect and reinforce the interplay of national interests and international obligations. This theoretical lens facilitates an exploration of the changing nature of global conflicts, operational mandates, and evolving international norms (Kirton, 2023). Findings: The research reveals that Australia’s peacekeeping contributions have evolved significantly, marked by key policy shifts from unilateralism to multilateralism within the UN paradigm. The country’s notable involvements in critical missions, such as those in East Timor and the Solomon Islands, exemplify its commitment to regional stability while also reflecting strategic partnerships with key allies (Cousens & Kumar, 2022). Furthermore, these contributions highlight Australia’s capacity to respond to complex emergencies and humanitarian crises effectively, reinforcing its role as a key player in regional peace and security. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: This examination elucidates the implications of Australia’s peacekeeping operations for its foreign policy trajectory and international standing. As the nation grapples with contemporary security challenges - including humanitarian crises, intrastate conflict, and post-colonial nation-building - the analysis reveals that Australia’s peacekeeping engagements align with broader international relations trends. Notably, there is an increasing emphasis on multilateralism, the principle of state sovereignty, and collaborative security efforts among nations (Hawkins, 2023).

The Ethiopian State, Foreign Policy and Participation in International Peacekeeping: Continuities and Changes

Abstract This article examines the continuities and changes in Ethiopian peacekeeping practices since its inception in the early 1950s to the present. It focuses on how international operations have interacted with historical, structural and ideational factors to shape Ethiopia’s involvement. Drawing on archival sources, policy papers, and media material as well as interviews with officials in Ethiopia, it singles out four distinct periods that have influenced Ethiopia’s participation in peacekeeping mission. It shows that all were characterised by the interplay between geopolitical factors, regional developments in Africa and domestic political changes. By identifying the major shifts in Ethiopia’s foreign policy orientation and involvement in peacekeeping, the article seeks to explains the rise of Ethiopia’s as a major actor in international peacekeeping since the early 2000s. It concludes by highlighting uncertainties facing Ethiopian peacekeeping due to regional complexities and political constraints resulting from internal conflicts.

Cultural adaptation and integration of Indonesian peacekeepers in Lebanon

This research aims to explore the cultural adaptation and integration of Indonesian peacekeeping personnel in Lebanon in the framework of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) mission. This study uses a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews and participatory observation as the main method of data collection. The results show that despite the challenges in cultural adaptation, Indonesian peacekeepers are able to adapt through effective cultural adaptation strategies. In addition, interpersonal relationships with local communities as well as cooperation with multinational forces play an important role in their integration process. This research provides in-depth insights into the dynamics of cultural adaptation in the context of international peacekeeping operations and provides recommendations to improve the effectiveness of future peacekeeping missions.

ИСТОРИКО-ПРАВОВОЙ АСПЕКТ ИНСТИТУТА МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО МИРОТВОРЧЕСТВА

The article provides a retrospective analysis of the genesis of the Institute of international peace-keeping. The works of philosophers, politicians and public figures are considered in this article. The above-mentioned persons have made a significant contribution to the development of the idea of in-ternational peacemaking. The rudiments of the regulatory framework of the first international treaty are analyzed, which considered the principles of international peacekeeping and mechanisms for the prevention of military conflicts. The conclusion is formulated that the genesis of the Institute of inter-national peacemaking began with the ideas of scientists, politicians and philosophers about peace and cooperation, developed through the creation of the first international organizations and peaked with the founding of the United Nations, which became the central forum for coordinating efforts to maintain peace and security in the world community.

What Could the United Nations General Assembly Do When the United Nations Security Council Is Deadlocked

At a time when the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is so deadlocked that it has difficulty performing its responsibilities in international peacekeeping, conventional opinions tend to focus on reforming the UNSC to find solutions. However, when faced with these issues, the role of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) cannot be ignored. As the main organ of the United Nations, the UNGA has a wider representation with 193 member states compared to the 15 members of the UNSC, which means that the UNGA can reflect the different opinions and interests of different countries. In addition, the UNGA can provide the necessary funding for peacekeeping missions, ensure their effectiveness, and exert political pressure on Member States to resolve conflicts and facilitate peace negotiations through the recommendations it approved. These characteristics indicate that UNGA has the full potential and qualifications to play an active role in international peacekeeping operations. This work is dedicated to arguing that when the UNSC is unable to perform its duties, the UNGA has the legitimacy and rationality to assume the secondary role of maintaining peace through the application of the Uniting for Peace Resolution and the establishment of subsidiary bodies and making feasible recommendations based on these perspectives.

An approach to intercultural training deemphasizing cross-cultural differences

PurposeThis paper aims to present an approach to intercultural training (IT) in which course participants are informed about various approaches to differences between peoples. Pitfalls in communication are identified that are due to overgeneralization of incidental observations of behavior and to psychological mechanisms such as stereotyping, ethnocentrism and attribution. Effects of poor command of a second language and paralinguistic factors are also included.Design/methodology/approachIntercultural communication training or IT programs often over-generalize incidental observations and make attributions about broad differences between “us” and “others”. An approach to IT is described that challenges the way in which notions about “culture” and “cultures” tend to be used.FindingsA training module based on the principles mentioned is described that was originally developed for military officers preparing for international peace-keeping and peace-building missions and later has been administered in various settings and countries.Research limitations/implicationsAn exit questionnaire and postmission interviews have suggested positive effects of the training, but more systematic evaluation research is needed.Practical implicationsCross-cultural communication (3C) training is mostly about how other people differ from “us”. Better understanding may be gained with an approach that emphasizes how much humans everywhere are alike and that perceived differences can also be in the eye of the beholder.Social implicationsMutual understanding is critical to positive interaction. The approach to 3C training taken here explains how much humans everywhere are alike and puts manifest differences into perspective.Originality/valueThe training module builds on available knowledge, notably from cross-cultural psychology. Except for a questionnaire to demonstrate ethnocentrism, there is hardly new information. However, the approach arranges available knowledge in a way that is rather novel for the field of 3C training.

UKRAINE’S PARTICIPATION IN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE PRE-WAR PERIOD

The article analyzes Ukraine’s participation in peacekeeping missions of international organizations, particularly the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The purpose of the article is to examine Ukraine’s influence on peacekeeping processes, with a focus on legislative changes and initiatives aimed at strengthening international law and the protection of peacekeepers. Key issues requiring further development are identified, such as the need for improved strategic planning and legislative development. The article focuses on global changes in international relations caused by globalization processes and identifies the role of international organizations in preventive measures and conflict resolution. Ukraine’s contribution to peacekeeping operations since its declaration of independence includes initiatives aimed at enhancing the UN’s peacekeeping capacity and changes in legislation regulating the country’s participation in international peacekeeping operations. The article emphasizes the importance of the experience gained by Ukrainian military personnel during their participation in peacekeeping missions for maintaining the combat readiness of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and highlights the financial aspects of the country’s participation in international peacekeeping operations. It identifies the need to further expand the civilian component in peacekeeping activities and focuses on the importance of involving qualified police and legal personnel, particularly through the improvement of the national training system for specialists and the creation of a national peacekeepers’ registry. Ukraine’s participation in peacekeeping operations of international organizations like the UN and NATO enhances the country’s international image, develops its defense capabilities and military experience, and creates new opportunities for international cooperation in ensuring global security. The conclusions of the article underline the strategic importance of peacekeeping activities for strengthening Ukraine’s international status and supporting its Euro-Atlantic integration.

Long Live Article 2(4) of the UN Charter? Four Ways to Save the Peaceful Rules-Based International Order after Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine

Abstract A centralized authority with a monopoly of force is fundamental to eradicate war between states. Unfortunately, due to the outdated power structure of the Security Council, it has once again proven incapable of reacting, this time, to Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Given the unprecedented potential that Russia’s unlawful use of force has of restructuring the international scene, this piece considers it crucial to adapt our international peacekeeping institutions to counter the emergence of a new disorderly and war-prone status quo. Thus, four legally and politically viable ways in which the international community can effectively express its outrage, avoid permanent member impunity, and reassert the United Nations’ legitimacy and relevance are proposed.

Rethinking Insecurity and Scoping Security Threat in Nigeria: Looking Ahead

Early in the 2000s, Boko Haram emerged with an Islamisation agenda concentrating mostly on Nigeria the largest African economy. There is empirical evidence suggesting that the government of Nigeria has not successfully warded off this group’s hostility. Yet there are gaps in security threats and extant literature. This study therefore examined the instability and anomic conditions resulting from this insurgency using the document analysis method and the Containment Theory employed as the theoretical framework. The analysis showed that there is no clear reason why the Nigerian military has failed to contain the Boko Haram insurgency given the army’s undoubted gallantry after excelling in several international peacekeeping assignments. It was recommended that public programs for enlightenment through community engagement and transparency would influence positively the government’s efforts to contain these terrorist activities. Given the complex nature of terrorism, there is a need for robust empirical studies that have to be done before any meaningful policy implementation can be considered. This study will amplify the international awareness of violent extremist activities in this most populated African nation. It will significantly provide the Nigerian government, human rights groups, researchers, civil society, policymakers, and public and private security agents with more knowledge to understand these terrorists better. Keywords: Nigeria, Threat, Peace, Security, Boko Haram

Peacekeeping, policing and politics: assembling the Ghana Armed Forces

Abstract While much of the peacekeeping literature fixates on mission deployments, associated challenges and the escalating violent contexts they navigate, this article underscores the transformative reverberations of peacekeeping on troop-contributing countries. Drawing from the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) case, our main focus is to elucidate how international peacekeeping shapes domestic security procedures, but we also point out that they are reciprocally influenced by them. Central to our analysis is the concept of ‘peacekeeping assemblage’ that we introduce to highlight the symbiotic relationship between the GAF's domestic security roles and its international peacekeeping engagements. Through this lens, we trace the cyclical flow of practices, discourses and experiences as they disassemble and reassemble in varied configurations, emphasizing the fluidity of peacekeeping influences across global landscapes. As discussions on peacekeeping evolve, it becomes paramount to grasp its broader implications—particularly its transformative impact on the personnel from troop-contributing nations and their home societies. This enriched perspective not only deepens our comprehension of the multifaceted nature and global reach of peacekeeping, it also provides policy-makers with insights into the broader ramifications of deployments, especially for those nations from the global South that bear the weight of these missions.

Understanding Bangladesh's security governance through peacekeeping assemblage: does contribution matter?

Abstract How do international peacekeeping experiences inform the security governance of contributing states from the global South? This article advances theoretical and policy arguments that international peacekeeping exposure contributes to forming multitudes of effects on domestic security affairs and shaping the contributing countries' security governance. The analysis problematizes the transformation of norms, policies, practices and institutional approaches in shaping the national security outlook of the contributing nations. Considering peacekeeping as a discursive ‘glo-cal’ affair and Bangladesh as a critical case, this study underscores how Bangladesh's contributions to United Nations Peace Support Operations (UNPSOs) inform its security governance. The article adopts a qualitative–interpretive approach to examine the assembling effects of Bangladesh's participation in such endeavours. It highlights the transformation in security institutions, new capacities in knowledge and income-generating sectors, new peacekeeping norms, and partnerships in security cooperation as the cornerstones in the national security outlook. Extending the purview of the existing literature on contributors' roles and impact, this article has offered assemblage as a dynamic conceptual lens to understand new domestic significance for the armed forces as global peace providers. Challenges related to the struggle for democracy, political stability and good governance persist in Bangladesh; nevertheless, the peacekeeping assemblage explains how the country has considered accelerating its global peace endeavours.

Peacekeeping armies: how the politics of peace operations shape military organizations

Abstract What is a ‘peacekeeping army’? Why do some states develop them? And what influence do they have on military organizations, their soldiers and the practices of peacekeeping more broadly? This article provides the first attempt to theorize this concept and illustrate its utility with reference to specific country examples. We develop the concept by drawing on a comparative analysis of troop contributions to peace operations over time, an examination of national security documents and institutional military reforms. Specifically, we define a ‘peacekeeping army’ as one which has undertaken institutional reforms to regularly perform the military functions of peacekeeping at a relatively large scale compared to the size of its active force and has prioritized international peacekeeping as one of its top-tier priorities. We find that political, economic and institutional motives for establishing a ‘peacekeeping army’ are more important than normative and security factors. Once established, a ‘peacekeeping army’ generates significant, and diverse effects on the soldiers, the military organization, the government and potentially the practices of peacekeeping more broadly. The conclusion summarizes our main findings and identifies implications for policy.

UN peacekeeping presence and local food security outcomes

A now extensive literature examines effects of international peacekeeping on conflict-affected countries’ war-to-peace transitions. Still, we know little about how impactful peacekeeping is in stemming a wider set of hardships affecting host communities, such as hunger. Addressing this gap, we theorize and empirically examine the relationship between local UN peacekeeping deployment and food security in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, and Liberia. The results suggest an overall positive but substantively modest association between peacekeeping presence and more food secure communities—proxied by stunting rates in children—and point to context-specific variation. We conclude by discussing implications for future research.

Submarine Infrastructures and the International Legal Framework

The purpose of this paper is to identify weaknesses in the international framework for the protection of submarine cables beyond the sovereign waters of coastal States. To illustrate this, the paper uses a hypothetical case study of what a possible attack on a submarine cable may look like. First, it provides an overview over the applicable framework, with a particular focus on international peacekeeping law (ius contra bellum), the law of the sea, protection against piracy, and criminal prosecution under national criminal law. Various international conventions play a key role in relation to submarine cables. Particularly relevant are the Convention on Submarine Telegraph Cables of 1884, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, as well as the peacekeeping regulations of the United Nations Charter of 1949. After outlining the legal framework using the classical methods of treaty interpretation, as well as taking the scholarly literature on this subject into account, the example is subsumed under the various means of protection under international law. The peacekeeping law of the United Nations turns out to be ineffective because, on the one hand, an attack as described in the reference scenario does not necessarily constitute an armed attack in the sense of the UN Charter and therefore cannot be met with military countermeasures. On the other hand, an authorisation by the Security Council cannot be given quickly enough to counter the attack militarily. In addition to that, measures taken in the framework of the Law of the Sea Convention are ineffective due to the exclusive flag State jurisdiction which precludes other States from acting in this matter. An exception to this principle, namely universal jurisdiction to combat piracy, is unlikely to be applied in the context of an attack against a submarine cable. Finally, as result of the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State and the poor implementation of the international obligations under the Law of the Sea Convention, national criminal law is also inadequate as a repressive means of protection.

‘Undivided’ city in a divided society: explaining the peaceful coexistence of Albanians and Serbs in Kamenicë/Kamenica, Kosovo

ABSTRACT The goal of this paper is to examine which factors have influenced interethnic relations between Albanians and Serbs in Kamenicë/Kamenica, which is significantly less hostile compared to other towns in Kosovo. Utilizing a multi-method research approach, we find these factors include historical-demographic, geopolitical, institutional, economic and cultural factors, as well as the work of the members of the international peacebuilding and peacekeeping missions deployed in the municipality of Kamenicë/Kamenica in June of 1999. Based on our findings, the concept of local-local hybridization is proposed as the main theoretical contribution to the theory of hybrid peace. This concept entails long-lasting interactions between ethnic groups in a local (post-conflict) community under different social circumstances and factors that affected their coexistence, whereby this must be supported by peacebuilding and peacekeeping activities adapted to the aforementioned concept if peace is to be sustained.

NA’s Future Peacekeeping Engagement Through a Case of Operation Lifeline in UNMISS

The essay delves into Nepal's substantial involvement in UN peacekeeping, particularly examining the Nepali Army's role in Operation Lifeline within the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). It traces the historical origins of Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS) and its transformation into Operation Lifeline (OLL) within UNMISS, emphasizing Nepal's enduring commitment to global peace. The narrative focuses on OLL-54, where the Nepali High Readiness Company (NEPHRC) played a crucial role, exceeding agreed-upon limits to ensure the safe passage of the barge in a complex security situation. The essay underscores the operational credibility and professionalism of the Nepali contingents especially NEPHRC, suggesting it as a case for Nepal's unique contribution to future UN peacekeeping efforts. It advocates for the systematic documentation of such experiences, envisioning the development of a unique Nepali peacekeeping model for the world. In conclusion, the essay asserts that Nepal has an opportunity to showcase its commitment and achievements in international peacekeeping, reinforcing its position as a significant contributor to the evolving landscape of UN peace missions.
 Nepali Army's (NA) six decades in United Nations (UN) peacekeeping is a reflection of Nepal's enduring commitment to global peace and security. This is not merely a legacy or an aggregate of numbers of participation, achievements, and sacrifices. NA today carries a huge baggage of experience and knowledgebase derived from different peacekeeping environments of conflict zones across the world from as many as 44 traditional and multi-dimensional UN peacekeeping missions. Quite significantly, NA can offer the UN a Nepali peacekeeping model based on lessons acquired through involvement and practice. From each mission and (the number of) contingents in those missions, NA has gathered tremendous lessons and learning (experience) from individuals - leaders and men alike and participating units. Yet very few attempts were made to collect those experiences and bring about inferences for its future application. The author believes that Nepal can contribute to the world with a unique outlook for future UN peacekeeping, which is always evolving. This paper, however, only attempts to discuss Operation Lifeline (OLL) of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) in particular to derive lessons relevant for Nepal/NA to consider for the future.

Reimagining Victors' peace in Sri Lanka: Exploring an alternative approach

AbstractThe three‐decade‐long Sri Lankan civil war between the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (the LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers) came to an end following a major GoSL offensive in May 2009, which resulted in GoSL claiming a “victor's peace.” The war caused the death of around 80,000 to 100,000 people and internally and externally displaced hundreds of thousands. During the three decades, five attempts at formal peace processes were initiated, all of which ended unsuccessfully. This paper identifies the root causes of the Sri Lankan civil war using the social cubism analysis by Byrne and Carter (Peace and Conflict Studies, 1996, 3, 5). It then examines two of the five formal negotiations, namely the Indo‐Lanka Agreement of 1987 and the Wickramasinghe‐LTTE agreement in 2002. Finally, it explores an alternative approach to building peace in Sri Lanka using the multimodal approach by Byrne and Keashly (International Peacekeeping, 2000, 3, 97) utilizing the nested paradigm, and the time dimension of peacebuilding by Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (1997).

How Stress, Trauma, and Emotion May Shape Post-Conflict Environments – with Implications for International Peacekeeping

ABSTRACT Recent research on post-conflict environments prioritizes more creative understandings of peace operations, leading researchers to dig deeper into the micro-foundations of peacebuilding and peacekeeping. Though some of this research highlights the role of emotions, there are several complexifying factors that interact with emotion – including chronic stress arousal, trauma, increased stress loads, stress and emotion contagion, and decreased self-regulatory capacity – that remain dramatically undertheorized in this new wave of research. Given that peacekeeping operations are an environment in which these factors are likely to be at their most salient, it is essential that we understand where and how they interact with those operations. This article seeks to address this oversight. It begins by integrating recent psychological and neuroscientific arguments about individuals’ neurobiological windows of tolerance, exploring how the conflict cycle can lead to post-conflict effects on individuals’ thoughts, emotions, decision-making, and behaviour. It then explores the implications of those lessons for two dimensions of peacekeeping environments, offering insight into peacekeepers’ dysregulation as well as structurally and socially embedded dysregulation within the host population. Most importantly, it offers recommendations for how to resolve the effects of stress and trauma in peacekeeping environments, and thus provide the healing needed for effective peacekeeping.

The Russian War Against Ukraine and Its Implications for the Future of Liberal Interventionism

The Russian war against Ukraine has already had crucial implications for the future of liberal interventionism. Drawing on current debates in IR about the transformation of the global world order, the article outlines how processes of global reordering affect (liberal) interventionism at different scales. The article argues that what has become known as the liberal international order is in retreat, at the expense of liberal peace-oriented international interventions. At the same time, current geopolitical realignments appear to be dividing the world into new spheres of influence, pitting democracies against autocracies at the global level and within regional conflicts. However, when it comes to security interventions and peacekeeping, the emerging realities on the ground, where a growing number of actors with different agendas interact, are more complex than simplistic world-order narratives suggest. Using the cases of international peacekeeping and security assistance as examples, the article shows that in some current international intervention sites, the emerging “multi-order world” is characterised by complicated constellations of parallel external assistance offers and rapid shifts in allegiances that do not necessarily follow clear divisions between “authoritarian” and “liberal” forms of assistance. The article therefore does not confirm expectations of the emergence of a “new Cold War” and a new round of ideological competition between international systems.