International Meteorological Committee Research Articles

Instrumental and Observational Problems of the Earliest Temperature Records in Italy: A Methodology for Data Recovery and Correction

A distinction is made between data rescue (i.e., copying, digitizing, and archiving) and data recovery that implies deciphering, interpreting, and transforming early instrumental readings and their metadata to obtain high-quality datasets in modern units. This requires a multidisciplinary approach that includes: palaeography and knowledge of Latin and other languages to read the handwritten logs and additional documents; history of science to interpret the original text, data, and metadata within the cultural frame of the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries; physics and technology to recognize bias of early instruments or calibrations, or to correct for observational bias; and astronomy to calculate and transform the original time in canonical hours that started from twilight. The liquid-in-glass thermometer was invented in 1641 and the earliest temperature records started in 1654. Since then, different types of thermometers have been invented, based on the thermal expansion of air or selected thermometric liquids with deviation from linearity. Reference points, thermometric scales, and calibration methodologies were not comparable, and not always adequately described. Thermometers had various locations and exposures, e.g., indoor, outdoor, on windows, gardens or roofs, facing different directions. Readings were made only one or a few times a day, not necessarily respecting a precise time schedule: this bias is analysed for the most popular combinations of reading times. The time was based on sundials and local Sun, but the hours were counted starting from twilight. In 1789–1790, Italy changed system and all cities counted hours from their lower culmination (i.e., local midnight), so that every city had its local time; in 1866, all the Italian cities followed the local time of Rome; in 1893, the whole of Italy adopted the present-day system, based on the Coordinated Universal Time and the time zones. In 1873, when the International Meteorological Committee (IMC) was founded, later transformed into the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), a standardization of instruments and observational protocols was established, and all data became fully comparable. In dealing with the early instrumental period, from 1654 to 1873, the comparison, correction, and homogenization of records is quite difficult, mainly because of the scarcity or even absence of metadata. This paper deals with this confused situation, discussing the main problems, but also the methodologies to recognize missing metadata, distinguish indoor from outdoor readings, correct and transform early datasets in unknown or arbitrary units into modern units, and, finally, in which cases it is possible to reach the quality level required by the WMO. The aim is to explain the methodology needed to recover early instrumental records, i.e., the operations that should be performed to decipher, interpret, correct, and transform the original raw data into a high-quality dataset of temperature, usable for climate studies.

Neumayer’s impact on meteorology in Germany

When Georg von Neumayer (1826–1909) had a practical training with Johann von Lamont (1805-1879) at the observatory at Bogenhausen (today part of Munich), he learnt not only about astronomical observations and the construction of instruments, but also about magnetic and meteorological measurements, as well as the organisation of networks of stations and the importance of publication of measured data and their analysis. When he became first Director of the Deutsche Seewarte (German Maritime Observatory) in Hamburg (1876–1903) he subsequently introduced weather telegraphy and synoptic meteorology and installed a workshop for the development and calibration of meteorological and magnetic instruments and compasses. He also initiated the establishment of a weather service in Bavaria and the aerological (kite) station at Groß Borstel close to Hamburg (1903). Under his guidance the Deutsche Seewarte soon took over a leading role in Germany, which was confirmed in Neumayer’s membership in the International Meteorological Committee (1879–1888). Finally he became the founding President of the Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft (German Meteorological Society) in 1883. This can be regarded as a further important step for the institutionalisation of meteorology as a discipline in Germany.

HONORS

Since 1893, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has awarded, once every 10 years, a golden Buys Ballot Medal to a scientist who has made outstanding contributions to the development of meteorology. The award was instituted in 1888 in honor of C. H. D. Buys Ballot (1817–90), upon his retirement as professor of physics at the University of Utrecht. Today, Buys Ballot is remembered best by Buys Ballot’s law, which gives the relation between wind and pressure. He derived this law from observations and published it in 1857.1 Buys Ballot was a pioneer both in weather forecasting and in recognizing the need for international cooperation in meteorology. He founded the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) in 1854 and served as its chief director until his death, and was first president (1873–79) of the International Meteorological Committee, a predecessor of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

International Meteorological Organisation

THE International Meteorological Organisation met in London during the week beginning February 25 for its first post-war conference. Some eighty delegates, consisting of the directors and members of the meteorological services of forty-six nations, were in private session under the chairmanship of Dr. Th. Hesselberg, president of the International Meteorological Committee since 1935. Dr. Hesselberg is the director of the Norwegian Meteorological Service. The first task of the conference was to re-form its various committees and technical commissions, and to fill the numerous vacancies in these bodies which had occurred since the last meeting of the Organisation in Berlin in May 1939. Six regional commissions were also formed, partitioning the whole world; each commission covers broadly a continent and its adjacent ocean areas. The new machinery thus set up has been given instructions and guidance for adapting to peace-time purposes the many developments in procedure and technique which have been evolved during the war years. The primary object in view has been to meet the requirements of long-distance flights by civil aircraft, and to see that the full resources of modern meteorological science are made available as quickly and effectively as possible to ensure the safety and regularity of airlines operating on the international routes. Next year, the International Meteorological Organisation plans to hold meetings of all its commissions in Toronto, to be followed by a conference of directors and a meeting of the International Meteorological Conference in Washington. At the close of the London conference, Dr. Hesselberg retired from the presidency of the Organisation, and Sir Nelson Johnson, director of the Meteorological Office, London, was elected as his successor.

Publications relating to the polar year 1932–1933

During the last few years many publications pertaining to the Polar Year 1932–1933 have appeared in the different countries. Nevertheless, a large number of these publications have not yet been supplied for the archives of the International Commission for the Polar Year despite the resolution on this point adopted by the International Meteorological Committee at its meeting at De Bilt in 1933, and again emphasized by the Conference of Directors at Warsaw in 1935.In view of these facts, it is requested that there be sent to the Commission, if possible, five copies of all publications (small or large) relating directly or indirectly to the Polar Year which have not already been sent for its archives.

Mount Washington's contribution to the Second International Polar Year

At its Locarno meeting in October 1931, the International Meteorological Committee adopted a resolution emphasizing the great importance of observations at mountain stations during the Second International Polar Year [see reference 1 at end of paper]. Mount Washington was the only high‐level station in this country to cooperate with the International Polar Year Commission (see Figs. 1 and 5). The history of its organization and the details of its operation were outlined by R. S. Monahan and S. Pagliuca at the fourteenth annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in April 1933 [2]. A popular account by R. S. Monahan has also appeared [3].

Magnetic characterization of days

At its meeting in Paris in September 1900, the International Meteorological Committee, on the recommendation of the Magnetic Commission, adopted a resolution that the directors of the magnetic observatories be requested to furnish periodically a list of the days which they considered as calm. Dr. Maurits Snellen, member of the Commission and director of the De Bilt Observatory was, from the end of 1903, entrusted with collecting and distributing these lists.At the meeting of the Commission in Innsbruck in September 1905, it was resolved that the magnetic observatories should be requested to prepare, beginning January 1, 1906, statements showing the magnetic character of each day on the scale 0 to 2, proposed by Professor Ad. Schmidt: 0, to indicate calm days; 1, disturbed days; and 2, very disturbed days. It was left to the discretion of the individual directors to fix limits for defining these divisions. The collection and distribution of the statements were again confided to Dr. Snellen.

Weather Bureau Program for the Second International Polar Year

At a meeting of the Polar Year Commission in Innsbruck, Austria, during September, 1931, the question was raised as to whether, in view of the world‐wide economic condition, the plans for the Polar Year should be deferred until some future time when they could be carried out more completely and satisfactorily than is now possible. After considerable discussion, in the course of which it was pointed out that a great deal of preparatory work, already accomplished in outlining and organizing the program, would have to be repeated in case of postponement, it was decided to proceed with the project. The following resolution was accordingly adopted: “The Commission is of the opinion that the observations already assured during the Polar Year, 1932–1933, will be of such importance that the researches outlined should be carried on during 1932–1933.” This resolution was indorsed by the International Meteorological Committee at its meeting in Locarno, Switzerland, October 1, 1932, thus assuring the prosecution of the Second International Polar Year program, though probably on a somewhat reduced scale.

Air Ministry: Meteorological Office The Meteoro-logical Glossary

THIS glossary shows signs of very thorough revision and is full of information in a compact and handy form, thereby fulfiling some of the functions of a text-book. There are charts and numerous diagrams, and a good deal of statistical and descriptive information about the climate of Great Britain is given under several of the headings, particularly in the section on rainfall. It is difficult to think of any term in any way connected with meteorology that is not given a place in the bold-type headings, and the names equivalent to the English of a number of meteorological phenomena are given at the end of the volume in several languages, at the request of the International Meteorological Committee. References in the articles to matters dealt with in other parts of the glossary conveniently appear in italics.

Resolutions passed by the Polar Year Commission of The International Meteorological Committee at Leningrad, August 1930

Upon the invitation of the Academy of Sciences and of the Hydrometeorological Committee of the U.S.S.R. received through Professor A. P. Karpinsky, President of the Academy of Sciences, a conference of the International Commission for the Polar Year of 1932–33 was held in Leningrad, August 26–30, 1930, under the presidency of Dr. D. la Cour. The International Commission was represented at this conference by Messrs. D. la Cour (Denmark), H. Dominik (Germany), J. A. Fleming (United States), H. Hergesell (Germany), W. E. W. Jackson (Canada), A. P. Karpinsky (U.S.S.R.), J. Keränen (Finland), Ch. Maurain (France), G. C. Simpson (Great Britain), H. U. Sverdrup (Norway), and A. Wangenheim (U.S.S.R.). There were also present, as the guests of the International Commission, Messrs. H. D. Harradon (United States) and V. Laursen (Denmark), and Miss Bruun de Neergaard (Denmark).The following scientists of the U.S.S.R. participated in the sessions of the conference: A. P. Karpinsky, President of the Academy of Sciences and of the Polar Commission of the U.S.S.R., member of the International Commission for the Polar Year of 1932–33; A. Wangenheim, President of the Hydrometeorological Committee of the U.S.S.R., member of the International Commission for the Polar Year of 1932–33; J. Schokalsky, President of the Geographical Society of Russia, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, and member of the Polar Commission of the U.S.S.R.; L. Rudowitz, Chief of the Hydrometeorological Department of the Hydrographic Office; A. M. Lawrow, member of the Polar Commission of the U.S.S.R., collaborator of the Hydrographic Office; N. Rose, collaborator of the Central Geophysical Observatory and member of the Polar Commission of the U.S.S.R.; W. N. Obolensky, V. Schuleikin, B. Weinberg, A. Kaminsky, A. Schönrock, W. Arnold‐Alabjew, and M. Kartzeff, collaborators of the Central Geophysical Observatory; W. Schostakowitsch, collaborator of the Central Geophysical Observatory, former Director of the Geophysical Observatory at Irkutsk; A, Tolmatchew, Secretary of the Polar Commission and of the Local Committee on the Polar Year of the U.S.S.R., Chief of the Expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. to the region of Petchora; D. Rudnew, member of the Polar Commission of the U.S.S.R.; P. Moltschanow, Director of the Aerological Observatory at Sloutzk; Trutnew, Director of the Geophysical Observatory at Irkutsk; A. W. Sokolow, collaborator of the Hydrometeorological Committee of the U.S.S.R.; W. Timonoff, collaborator of the National Hydrological Institute; N. N. Kalitin, Director of the Actinometric Institute at Sloutzk; R. Khuzechwili, Director of the Magnetic Observatory at Sloutzk; V. Akhmatow, Vice‐Director of the Hydrographic Office.

Manual of Meteorology, Vol. III. The Physical Processes of Weather . By Sir Napier Shaw, F.R.S., sometime director of the Meteorological Office, London, and president of the International Meteorological Committee. With the assistance of Elaine Austin, formerly of Newnham College, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. American agent, Macmillan. 445 pages, 149 figures. Price $9.00.

<i>Manual of Meteorology, Vol. III. The Physical Processes of Weather</i> . By Sir Napier Shaw, F.R.S., sometime director of the Meteorological Office, London, and president of the International Meteorological Committee. With the assistance of Elaine Austin, formerly of Newnham College, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. American agent, Macmillan. 445 pages, 149 figures. Price $9.00.

Relation between the section of meteorology of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union and the International Meteorological Committee

This statement represents my personal views on this question, without any attempt to coordinate them with others or to ascertain the consensus of opinion concerning which differences of view are sure to prevail.To understand the question it is necessary to understand the nature of the two organizations. It is assumed quite unnecessary to discuss the nature or organization of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, with its sections, especially that of Meteorology. On the other hand, the International Meteorological Organization is not so well known, except among meteorologists, even though it has been in more or less complete existence for more than 50 years. Moreover, its activities have been marked by an unusual degree of harmony and cooperation in the field of meteorology. Therefore, it commands our reverence and respect.

Resolutions passed by the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee at Copenhagen, September 1929

On September 12 and 13, 1929, two meetings of the International Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity were held at Copenhagen, Denmark, and the following officers were elected President, Ch. Maurain; Secretaries, D. la Cour and G. van Dijk. Thirteen new members were also elected representing twelve different countries, namely, S. Banerji (India); T. F. Claxton (Hongkong); J, Egedal (Denmark); J. A. Fleming (U.S.A.); Hlasek (Poland); J. Keränen (Finland); G. Ljungdahl (Sweden); P. L. Mercanton (Switzerland); A. Nippoldt (Germany); J. Patterson (Canada); N. Rose (U.S.S.R.); H. U. Sverdrup (Norway); A. Wigand (Germany). Among the subjects discussed at these meetings were the following: Relations between the Commission and the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, investigations of the daily lunar variation in the Earth's magnetic field, manner of measuring magnetic traces, and proposals regarding the projected polar year 1932–33.On September 14, 1929, a joint meeting of the Commission for the Réseau Mondial and Polar Meteorology and the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity was held. After considerable discussion the following eight resolutions were adopted unanimously:

The magnetic character of the year 1927 and review of the years 1917–1927

The annual review of the “Caractère magnétique de chaque jour” for 1927 has been drawn up in the same manner as the preceding years; moreover it contains a review of the collaboration of the observatories during the years 1917–1927.In 1927, 43 observatories contributed to the quarterly reviews; 41 of them sent complete data. Table II of the annual review, containing the mean character of each day and each month, the lists of calm days and of disturbed days and the days, recommended for reproduction, are reprinted here. (It will be recalled that at the meeting of the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee at Zürich, September 17, 1926, it was agreed that certain days included amongst the five most disturbed days of the month, should not be included amongst the days selected for the calculation of the diurnal irregularities. Days of character 2.0 should be excluded and other highly disturbed days, on which loss of trace has occurred.)

Resolutions passed by the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee at Zürich, September 1926

(I) Dr. Venske called attention to certain advantages for the purpose of magnetic characterization possessed by a day starting at Greenwich noon, and suggested that the attachment of a dash to the character figures 0 and 1, to signify an enhanced amount of disturbance, would introduce increased precision. In view, however, of the fact that the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics had arranged in Madrid in 1924 for a report, to be submitted in 1927 at Prague, on characterization, it was considered inadvisable to make any change at present.(II) In view of the desirability that the same days should be employed at all stations for the deduction of diurnal inequalities on disturbed days, and in view of the great liability to loss of trace at stations in high latitudes on occasions of outstanding disturbance, it was agreed that certain days included amongst the five most disturbed days of the month should not be included amongst the days selected for the calculation of diurnal inequalities. Days of character 2.0 should be excluded, and other highly disturbed days on which loss of trace had occurred. Directors of Observatories were to be requested to inform Prof. E. van Everdingen promptly of such loss of trace, so that he should be in possession of the necessary information at the appropriate time.

The magnetic character of the year 1926

The “annual review” of the “Caractère magnétique de chaque jour” for 1926 has been drawn up in the same manner as for the preceding year. Forty‐three observatories contributed to the quarterly reviews; all of them sent complete data. In the introduction of the “review” a note has been inserted concerning disturbed days. In the meeting of the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee at Zürich, September 17, 1926, it was agreed that certain days included amongst the five most disturbed days of the month, should be included amongst the days selected for the calculation of the diurnal irregularities. Days of character 2.0 should be excluded and other highly disturbed days, on which loss of trace had occurred.

International Meteorological Research

THE Meteorological Section of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics met at Madrid at the beginning of October 1924, and the proceedings of the Section edited by the secretary, Prof. Eredia, have now been published. Some doubt had been felt by those familiar with international meteorological organisation as to whether the Meteorological Section of the Geophysical Union could find a broad enough field of operations without encroaching upon the proper domain of the International Meteorological Committee. The report of the work of the Section at Madrid which is contained in the present volume ought to remove any doubt of this kind. There are points where the work of the Section touches the work of the International Meteorological Committee, and under the guidance of a president less familiar than Sir Napier Shaw with international meteorological organisation, the Section might have wasted a certain amount of time in the unprofitable discussion of questions belonging to the field of official administration. The minutes of the five meetings, one of which was held conjointly with the Sections of Hydrology, Oceanography and Terrestrial Magnetism, show that the Commission confined itself to the encouragement and development of experimental and exploratory work in meteorology.

Prof. H. H. Hildebrandsson

THE death of Hugo Hildebrand Hildebrandsson at Upsala on July 29 of this year, at the advanced age of eighty-seven years, marks the passing of a meteorologist of exceptional character. He was secretary of the International Meteorological Committee in succession to R. H. Scott from 1900 until 1907, when he himself retired from the direction of the Institute of the University of Upsala, at which he was the first professor of meteorology, to be succeeded by his son-in-law, F. Akerblom, the present professor. His name is known throughout the meteorological world for his activity in connexion with the study of clouds in all parts of the world, which culminated in the “International Cloud Year” 1896–97, and found further expression in the “International Cloud Atlas” published mainly under his guidance in 1896, with a new edition in 1910.

The magnetic character of the year 1923

The annual review of the “Caractère magnétique de chaque jour” for 1923 contains, according to the decisions of the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee at the Utrecht meeting of September, 1923, besides the data of the preceding years, a list of the five most disturbed days of each month. In the list of calm days the mean character of the five days has been given, whereas in the list of the five most disturbed days the mean character number of each day has been given.Moreover two appendices have been inserted in the review: Method of Classification of the Magnetic Character, and Concerning Photographic Copies of Magnetograms.

Regarding measures of magnetic characterization of days

1. Experience has shown that the Bidlingmaier “activity” measure for the magnetic characterization of days entails too much labor to be successfully put into general practice. Accordingly, Chree,1 Hazard,2 Adolf Schmidt,3 Bauer,4 and van Dijk,5 have been led to suggest other methods of procedure for obtaining measures of magnetic activity. It is also being recognized more and more that the so‐called international magnetic “character” numbers, issued for quarterly periods by the De Bilt Observatory in behalf of the Commission on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee, do not serve all the purposes desired. The time therefore has come when it would seem advantageous to omit further discussion of past methods and give serious attention to finding some comparatively simple method for the magnetic characterization of days, the adoption of which will not greatly add to the work of the usual observatory personnel.