International Business Travel Research Articles

HARARE AS A DESTINATION FOR INFORMAL BUSINESS TOURISM: PERSPECTIVES OF THE CROSS-BORDER TRADERS

Business tourism scholarship in the Global South is an undeveloped theme in international research. The phenomenon of business tourism in sub-Saharan Africa is urban-centred. This paper unpacks a critical dimension of business tourism in the African city, namely the activities of informal business tourists. Specifically, the focus is on Harare, Zimbabwe’s capital city, as a destination for international informal business travellers. Using qualitative interviews with cross-border traders, new insight is provided on the reasons why Harare is a preferred destination for cross-border traders. It is demonstrated that Harare is assuming a growing role in the network of cities in Southern Africa (and beyond) which are connected through the mobilities and activities of informal cross-border traders.Two distinct sub-groups are differentiated within Harare’s economy of international informal business tourism These are cross-border traders from other countries in sub-Saharan Africa who travel to Harare and Zimbabwean cross-border traders who visit Harare either to buy goods for resale in other countries in the region of Southern Africa or to sell in Harare goods that are purchased in neighbouring countries, mainly from South Africa.

International business travel: a review of theory and research

PurposeThe goals of this review are to identify key theories, constructs and themes in the international business travel (IBT) literature and to propose a model based on findings, theories and constructs drawn from adjacent research literature.Design/methodology/approachThe authors reviewed the business travel (BT) literature to identify conceptual and empirical articles on IBT published from 1990 to 2022. Only 53 publications were suitable for review. The authors reviewed them using an open coding system.FindingsThe IBT literature is dispersed across several disciplines that use different methods, focus on different aspects of travel and emphasize different positive and negative outcomes that IBT engenders. The publications employed a diverse range of methods, including review and conceptual (11), quantitative (28) and qualitative methods (14). The samples were diverse in country, age, marital status and tenure. Many publications were descriptive and exploratory. The few that based their research on theory focused on two stress theories: Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory and conservation of resources (COR) theory.Research limitations/implicationsExperimental and longitudinal designs are needed to reduce the causal ambiguity of this body of mostly correlational and cross-sectional research. The authors discuss the impact of emerging advances in virtual global communication technology on the future of IBT.Practical implicationsMore research is needed on positive aspects of IBT. Human resource (HR) people should be aware of these issues and are encouraged to decrease the deleterious aspects of the international trips and increase the positive ones.Social implicationsIncreasing well-being of international business travelers is important for the travelers, their families and the organization.Originality/valueThis is the first IBT review focused on the theoretical underpinnings of research in the field. The authors offer a model for IBT and introduce adjustment and performance as important constructs in IBT research. The authors encompass crossover theory to add the reciprocal impact of travelers and spouses and label IBT a “double-edge sword” because it arouses both positive and negative outcomes.

Air travel choice, online meeting and passenger heterogeneity - An international study on travellers' preference during a pandemic.

This study empirically identifies business travellers’ preferences during the COVID-19 pandemic across different regions. A stated preference study was conducted during April to June 2021 on respondents in the U.S., the city of Shanghai in mainland China and Hong Kong. Generalised mixed multinomial logit (GMXL) models are estimated incorporating attributes of travel characteristics, severity levels of the pandemic, and health control measures at the airport. When an online meeting is inapplicable, respondents from Shanghai and Hong Kong highly value heath control measures, and are not sensitive to the time spent at airport health checkpoints. In comparison, U.S. respondents are averse to the time spent for health check, the reporting of personal information, travel history, symptoms, and the requirements of compulsory mask wearing and onsite sample testing. However, when online meeting is applicable, all the respondents show no appreciation for health control measures, while the U.S. respondents are twice more averse to the time spent at airport health checkpoints. Online meeting reduces the intention of international business travel amid the pandemic for passengers in Shanghai and Hong Kong, but imposes no significant effects on U.S. travellers. Such significant heterogeneity in traveller preference partly explains the different recovery patterns observed in various aviation markets, and justifies individualized travel arrangements and service priority in fulfilling pandemic control requirements across different regions. Our study also suggests that there are commonly accepted areas for global cooperation such as the sharing of vaccination record, and the option of online meeting calls for convenient travel arrangements amid pandemic to all countries.

Does Job Demands-Resources Theory work for international business travel?

BackgroundOrganisations frequently rely on international business travel when operating in internationalized business environments. Yet, the effectiveness of this mechanism relies on their international business travellers (IBTs) being physically and psychologically well enough to productively perform across different working environments. The salience of this issue has led to increased interest in explaining IBTs’ work-related outcomes and their antecedents. Data and methodsThis paper tests key assumptions of the job-demands resources theory (JD-R) in the context of international business travel. Based on a sample of 134 IBTs from different national backgrounds, the study analyses the role of prominent job demands and resources for IBTs’ exhaustion and engagement. The study also looks at the presumed moderating role of recovery experiences. ResultsSupport for the JD-R theory when applied to the context of international business travel remains mixed. Results suggest workload as an important predictor of exhaustion. Organisational support predicts engagement. Other typical resources including autonomy and supervisory support do not show a significant relation to work-related outcomes. Apart from recovery relaxation, which significantly weakened the impact of job demands on exhaustion, none of the moderating effects (via coping, buffering or other recovery experiences) are confirmed. ConclusionsThe findings reflect the unique complexities of international business travel. For professionals working with or as IBTs, this study only suggests workload and support as reliable levers to influence work-related outcomes. For a better understanding of further job demands, resources and moderators within the IBT context, additional JD-R related research and theoretical development is proposed.

COVID-19: prevalence of job-demands, stress, work–life difficulties and work–life balance among international business travelers

PurposeInternational business travelers (IBTs) face daily challenges pertaining to the frequency and duration of travel. Following the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the study aims to draw upon the job demands-resources (JD-R) model and the literature on work–life balance (WLB) to examine how this crisis have disrupted IBTs routines and the implications for their WLB.Design/methodology/approachData were collected in April 2020 with an online survey answered by 141 IBTs from different locations. The first set of analyses examined the perceived change in job-demands (i.e. business travel and workload) including stress and work–life difficulties following the outbreak of COVID-19. The second set of analyses tested the hypotheses that the perceived change in workload and stress predict IBTs' work–life difficulties, which, in turn, affect their WLB.FindingsThe results show that the decline in job-demands (i.e. business travel and workload) after the outbreak of COVID-19 was not enough to reduce IBTs' stress and ameliorate their work–life difficulties and WLB. Only respondents who experienced a decrease in workload, including less relational difficulties, reported a superior WLB.Originality/valueThe study widens the scope and relevance of global mobility studies in crisis settings by timely reporting the changes in job-demands, stress and work–life difficulties among IBTs following the outbreak of COVID-19. Additionally, the research extends the use of the JD-R model in the international context by advancing our knowledge of the interplay between contextual demands and job-demands in affecting IBTs' stress, work–life difficulties and WLB.

Discretion as a double‐edged sword in global work: The perils of international business travel

AbstractInternational business travellers (IBTs) have become omnipresent in multinational enterprises, and yet we know little on how they manage the inherent complexities of their global work. Through a qualitative research design, our study reveals a perturbing job demands‐resources mismatch faced by these individuals. IBTs are afforded substantial discretion with respect to how they carry out their global work and this discretion enables engagement in a series of job crafting actions. The job crafting actions we identify in this study inadvertently intensified rather than eased the demands‐resources mismatch that IBTs confronted. Our study advances job crafting theory through unpacking the potentially dysfunctional nature of job crafting in a global work context. In doing so, we challenge much of the extant literature which tends to overwhelmingly focus on the positive impact of job crafting actions. Our findings lead us to call for greater organisational oversight and configuration of support structures for IBTs.

Jet-Lag Countermeasures Used by International Business Travelers.

INTRODUCTION: Research has highlighted the significant impact that jet lag can have upon performance, health, and safety. International business travelers have an important role in economic growth; however, there is a lack of research investigating jet lag and jet-lag management in international business travelers. This study aimed to investigate international business travelers use of jet-lag countermeasures. METHODS: International business travelers from Australia (N = 107) participated in a survey examining use of jet-lag countermeasures (pharmacological and nonpharmacological). Chi-squared tests were conducted examining the association between duration of stay and traveling experience on jet-lag countermeasure use. RESULTS: Most subjects had traveled for business for less than 15 yr and 57% reported taking between 14 trips annually. Durations of stay averaged 10 d (SD 13 d). Nonpharmacological countermeasure use was high. Pharmacological countermeasure use was less common. There were no significant associations between duration of stay and countermeasure implementation. Travel experience was only associated with nonpharmacological countermeasures after arrival home. CONCLUSION: Education programs delivered through businesses would be beneficial for providing information on jet lag, its implications, and recommended countermeasures to travelers. Rigney G, Walters A, Bin YS, Crome E, Vincent GE. Jet-lag countermeasures used by international business travelers. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2021; 92(10):825830.

Discretion as a Double-edged Sword in Global Work: The Perils of International Business Travelers

International business travelers have become omnipresent in multinational enterprises, and yet we know little on how they manage the inherent complexities of their global work. Through a qualitative research design, our study reveals a perturbing job demands-resources mismatch faced by these individuals. They are afforded substantial discretion with respect to how they carry out their global work which enables engagement in a series of job crafting actions. These inadvertently intensified rather than eased the demands-resources mismatch they confronted. We advance job crafting theory through unpacking the potentially dysfunctional nature of job crafting in a global work context and in doing so, challenge the overwhelmingly positive benefits commonly outlined. Our findings lead us to call for greater organizational oversight and configuration of support structures for business travel, alongside increased virtual working.

International business travelers' job exhaustion: effects of travel days spent in short-haul and long-haul destinations and the moderating role of leader-member exchange

PurposeThe purpose of the present study is to examine the general and travel-specific job exhaustion of international business travelers (IBTs). The study employs a JD-R model to explain general and travel-specific job exhaustion (IBTExh) through international business travel as demand and leadership (LMX) as a resource buffering the demands of international business travel.Design/methodology/approachThe study was conducted among Finnish service company employees who had taken at least one international business trip during the previous year. The data (N = 569), collected in 2015, were analyzed with path models.FindingsThe results suggest that a higher number of international business travel days is related to a higher level of job exhaustion, especially the exhaustion related to international business travel. Moreover, a high-quality LMX was found to be linked to lower levels of both types of exhaustion. Interestingly, for those IBTs' with a low-quality LMX, even a high number of long-haul international business travel days was not connected with IBTExhOriginality/valueThe contribution of our study is threefold. First, this study contributes to JD-R theory and the ill-health process by focusing on a job-specific well-being indicator, IBTExh, in addition to general exhaustion. Second, specific job demands related to international business travel, particularly the duration of business travel spent in short-haul and long-haul destinations, contributes to the literature on global mobility. This study sheds light on the potential effects on IBTs of different types of business travel. Third, our study contributes to the leadership literature and the importance of acknowledging the context in which LMX occurs.

Global Mobility beyond Traditional Assignments - A Review on Flexpatriates and International Business Travellers

The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of flexpatriates and international business travellers (FIBT) and related issues of FIBTs. Finally, the outcome of the paper is enriched by presenting a policy oriented conceptual model for managerial concern to resolve such issues of FIBSs. A literature-based data compilation was done to develop this model. The model mainly outlines the necessity of giving strategic policy orientation on managing FIBTs by considering several supportive channels: organizational support and social support for both assignees and families.

The Impact of the Covid‐19 Pandemic on Firms’ Organizational Designs

The Impact of the Covid‐19 Pandemic on Firms’ Organizational Designs

Flexible global working arrangements: An integrative review and future research agenda

The topography of global mobility within multinational enterprises (MNEs) is evolving where we now have a portfolio of flexible global working arrangements (FGWAs) including: international business travellers, flexpatriates, short-term international assignees, international commuters, and rotational assignees. The need for more agile structures and more efficient mechanisms to transfer globally dispersed knowledge are two key enablers in this evolution. With increased interest, this paper offers the first systematic, integrative review of 100 articles on FGWAs. The review indicates that these forms of global work appear to be a somewhat overlooked double-edged sword in that they may confer significant but unrealised value for MNEs alongside hidden, adverse consequences for individuals. Notable was the lack of insight into the HR function's input or oversight at either a strategic or operational level. We find that there is a distinct lack of strategic linkages to global mobility and/or HR functions. We propose a research agenda that centres on better understanding the international HR function's role and responsibility in providing a more strategic and sustainable perspective of these increasingly common FGWAs alongside virtual work. The COVID-19 pandemic may offer a critical juncture point in which there is greater strategic consideration on the utilisation and support of such arrangements.

The development of HR support for alternative international assignments. From liminal position to institutional support for short-term assignments, international business travel and virtual assignments

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explain how and why HR practitioners perceive the need to develop international HRM practices to support short-term assignments, international business travel and virtual assignments for internationally operating organizations.Design/methodology/approachThe authors interviewed 29 HR practitioners from multinationals located in the Netherlands.FindingsAlternative international assignments seem not to belong to the traditional expatriate jobs, nor to regular domestic jobs and show a liminal character. However, over the last few years we have gradually seen a more mature classification of the Short-term Assignment, International Business Traveler and Virtual Assignment categories and more active use of these categories in policymaking by organizations; this reflects a transition of these three categories from a liminal position to a more institutionalized position.Research limitations/implicationsFor this research, only international HRM practitioners were interviewed. Future studies should include a broader group of stakeholders.Practical implicationsInternational HRM departments should take a more proactive role regarding alternative forms of international assignees. Furthermore, HR professionals may develop training and coaching and consider rewards and benefits that could provide allowances for specific working conditions that are part of international work.Originality/valueThis study is among the first to relate the framework of institutional logic and liminality to explain the why of HR support for alternative international assignees.

Knowledge diffusion in the network of international business travel.

We use aggregated and anonymized information based on international expenditures through corporate payment cards to map the network of global business travel. We combine this network with information on the industrial composition and export baskets of national economies. The business travel network helps to predict which economic activities will grow in a country, which new activities will develop and which old activities will be abandoned. In statistical terms, business travel has the most substantial impact among a range of bilateral relationships between countries, such as trade, foreign direct investments and migration. Moreover, our analysis suggests that this impact is causal: business travel from countries specializing in a specific industry causes growth in that economic activity in the destination country. Our interpretation of this is that business travel helps to diffuse knowledge, and we use our estimates to assess which countries contribute or benefit the most from the diffusion of knowledge through global business travel.

Navigating Complex Frontiers: International Business Travellers as Global Boundary Spanners in MNEs

This paper explores how international business travellers (IBTs) enact global boundary spanning roles within multinational enterprises (MNEs). Incorporating a boundary spanning lens, and drawing on...

Ill-being or well-being? Energising international business travellers

PurposeThe purpose of this qualitative study is to explore well-being experiences of international business travellers (IBTs) and contribute to our understanding of personal and job characteristics as antecedents of ill- or well-being.Design/methodology/approachThe authors’ insights are based on semi-structured in-depth interviews with 32 IBTs assigned to various destinations ranging from single-country travel to global operation. Participants in this study represent a range of traveller personas (regarding demographics, type of work, travel patterns). Thematic analysis is used to reveal new insights.FindingsThe authors’ analysis revealed trip-load (i.e. workload, control, organisational support) and intensity of travel (i.e. frequency, duration and quality) as job characteristics that sit on an energy stimulation continuum, driving work-related outcomes such as stress and burnout or health and well-being. Energy draining and boosting processes are moderated by cognitive flexibility and behavioural characteristics.Practical implicationsFindings represent a framework for managing IBT well-being via adjustments in job and travel characteristics, plus guidance for training and development to help IBTs self-manage.Originality/valueThe insights within this paper contribute to the conversation around how to enhance well-being for IBTs and frequent flyers. The study intends to offer direction as to which specific job, psychological and behavioural characteristics to focus on, introducing a novel framework for understanding and avoiding serious consequences associated with international mobility such as increased stress, burnout and ill-health.

Ageing academics do not retire - they just give up their administration and fly away: a study of continuing employment of older academic international business travellers

This research examines a newer breed of globally mobile international employee, older academic international business travellers (AIBTs). This is the first study to examine older academics who retire or reduce their responsibilities but continue to work – and to work internationally. Using semi-structured interviews with older academics from Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, we found ten key drivers for continuing to work, albeit in a different capacity, as academic international business travellers; most of which related to strong identification with occupation. We also found interviewees have generally greater satisfaction levels than experienced in their previous work. Interviewees expressed intentions to continue working as long as opportunities are presented to them and their interest in doing so and health allows. We note implications for further research and opportunities for universities to make use of the invested human capital of older academics.

Of discovery and dread: The importance of work challenges for international business travelers' thriving and global role turnover intentions

SummaryAs frequent travel across international borders has become common for an ever‐increasing number of workers, it is essential to understand what helps these international business travelers (IBTs) thrive and embrace their global work responsibilities. This study's purpose is to examine the role of developmental opportunities (i.e., work role challenges) in helping IBTs see frequent travel as a predominantly beneficial experience. By integrating two theories of motivation—conservation of resources theory and the challenge‐hindrance demands framework—I build a moderated mediation model of IBTs' intent to cease their global work responsibilities (i.e., global role turnover intentions). Using latent moderated structural equation modeling, I test the model on a sample of 204 IBTs collected at two time points. Results show that, through the psychological state of thriving at work, travel frequency has a negative indirect association with IBTs' global role turnover intentions when IBTs' work roles are challenging and a positive association when their work lacks challenge. This is primarily the case regarding the challenge of being responsible for others at work. The novelty of IBTs' work tasks is also a salient challenge but to a lesser extent. This study contributes to literatures on global work, work role design, and thriving.

Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault.

An estimated 11 million women in the United States have been raped while drunk or drugged. Occupational health nurses can offer education and sound advice to workers and international business travelers on how to protect themselves.

Psychological contracts of international business travellers

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the nature of psychological contracts of international business travellers (IBTs), a new form of expatriate that has arisen from the growing need for alternative forms of internationally mobile talent. The research is conducted in Belgium, a country recognised as a global hub in which international assignments are essential to economic success. Design/methodology/approach Research in respect of IBTs is limited and semi-structured interviews are used to explore Belgian employee perspectives. Findings The contract is more relational in nature than might be expected with an idiosyncratic mix of relational and transactional obligations. Research limitations/implications The research is small-scale and qualitative and not widely generalisable. Further it presents only employee perspectives. Nevertheless it generates rich insights into a phenomena about which little is known. Practical implications The findings develop understanding of how to manage the valuable strategic resource that is the IBT. Originality/value First, the research is of value to the International Human Resource Management field in developing understanding of a newly emerging form of international employee, the IBT. Second, it contributes to psychological contract research in both developing understanding the transactional/relational balance and in generating much-needed rich and nuanced qualitative data.