International Assistance Programs Research Articles

Humanitarian Organizations in the ‘Greater Near East’: A Shield Against the Soviet Russia

The contested political geography of the Near East can be best illustrated as a relief and reconstruction land in the interwar period. Desperate situation of the refugees and the war-stricken people in the aftermath of the World War I (WWI) alerted the humanitarian organizations in the West. They initiated various international assistance programs and reinforced modern humanitarianism. This study probes into the post-war humanitarian organizations and their political trajectories. It is suggested that these state-sponsored agencies played a strategic role in the socio-economic colonization of the ‘Greater Near East’ stretching from the unstable Eastern Europe to the Soviet dominated Caucasus. This area is defined by the clashes between the liberal West and the Soviet Russia in the post war period. The underlying idea is that modern humanitarian organizations developed on the fault lines of the Eastern Question. As the gravity centre of this question shifted from the Ottoman Empire to the Soviet Russia in the post-WWI period, the Western liberals changed their humanitarian strategies to respond to this new challenge. The colonial engagements of the humanitarian organizations on the ex-Ottoman territories have already been revealed, however their operations on the Soviet influence area requires further examination for a world systemic analysis.

Transparency and Corruption Prevention in Financing Climate Action

The article summarises the arguments and counter-arguments within the scientific debate on enchancing the climate finance transparency. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the mechanism of climate finance and identify the key challenges that hinder the effective climate fund monitoring system. The relevance of addressing this research problem is due to the fact that the largest recipients of international climate finance are countries with high corruption risks, low standards in protection human rights, low trust in law enforcement and judicial authorities, etc. Therefore, the reporting and the quality of the reports prepared on the funds received under international assistance programmes is an important component of establishing long-term relations and trust between donor-countries or receipient-countries. The article examines the issue of climate finance transparency in the following logical sequence: analysed scientific publications on the issues of transparency and corruption in climate finance, examined the institutional mechanism of global climate finance, analysed the scale of climate finance in the world, and identified the main challenges in improving the transparency and efficiency of climate funds. The study was conducted using empirical (observation, description) and theoretical (grouping, synthesis, abstraction) research methods. The paper substantiates that the strengheting transparency of climate finance in developing countries requires a comprehensive approach - on the one hand, improving the level of justice, judiciary, enchancing the work of local regulatory authorities, developing legislation in recipient countries of international financial assistance, and on the other hand, improving the methodology of integrated accounting and reporting on the receipt and use of climate funds, as well as tracking the effects of project implementation. The study found that the key challenges that hinder the formation of an effective climate funds monitoring system are: a data collection and reporting system, an accounting and reporting system, and a coordination system.

Climate change, natural disasters, and institutional integrity

We empirically investigate the effect of climate-induced natural disasters on the quality of institutions in 92 countries using data from 1984 to 2016. An instrumental variable approach is used to account for the reverse causality from the number of people affected by natural disasters to the quality of institutions. We then employ the Hausman Taylor approach to account for the bias in estimating panels with endogenous variables. Estimation results reveal a negative impact of natural disasters on the quality of national institutions. Furthermore, disasters negatively affect the quality of institutions in low-income, non-developed countries, whereas the effect is non-significant for high-income and developed nations. At the regional level, institutions in East Asia, Pacific, and South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean tend to deteriorate after natural disasters. In contrast, natural disasters in the Middle East and North Africa are often followed by improved institutions. Of the 12 components of the institutional integrity index, metrics mostly affected by disasters include government stability, internal conflicts, law and order, ethnic fragmentation, and democratic accountability. Our results suggest that disaster risk reduction policies and international assistance programs to help climate change adaptation in various economies need a combined “top-down” and “bottom-up” approach. Additionally, institutional strengthening should be an integral component of disaster preparedness and adaptation efforts.

Post-War Economic Recovery: World Experience and Attempt to Adapt it for Ukraine

The following article is devoted to the theoretical analysis of the knowledge of the country’s world in the implementation of the program of the new war economy. The historical component can be seen in two directions – like a development of the war Europe, and the programs of international assistance to the Asian countries – Japan, Korea, Singapore. The current state of the economy of Ukraine was updated, internal and external remarks were seen, and the stages of the process of re-establishing the national economy were systematized. Potentially possible financial and institutional supply of resources and coordinating structures for the renewal of the economy of Ukraine was seen. Looking at the unique minds of geopolitical and socio-economic nature, in which our country was accused of the beginning of a military conflict, it was stated that the need for insane and uninterrupted participation of Ukraine in the preparation and promotion of international economic development. A wide retrospective analysis of the past analysis of international assistance programs for the countries of Europe (Marshall Plan), France and Great Britain, Ireland, as well as Japan (Dodge Plan), military renewal programs for Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong was carried out. The key factors for the success of the analysis of the countries in the reach of turbulent economic success are christened, their particular sectoral identity is stated by the obvious minds in Ukraine. It has been shown that the stencil for the creation of a new national model of economic innovation can be complex and revenge for the adaptation of foreign applications. It is recommended the author’s systematization of the principles of the implementation of international assistance programs that will be effective for the war economy of Ukraine. On the basis of them, it was formulated and in detail the transfer of direct reform of the economy of Ukraine with the improvement of stages and international access. Keywords post-war development, experience of international aid, Marshall Plan, Dodge Plan, “Asian economic tigers”, directions of economic recovery.

The Efforts of the International Financial Institutions in Fighting the COVID‑19

The article analyses the periods of socio-economic and socio-cultural cycles. it reveals the factors of interrelating conditions of an economy and a nation’s health. it reconsiders the issues of organizing international assistance programs in various countries. it introduces proposals as to the directions of international aid programs in poor countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. A major deliverable of the article is the significance of the necessity to break away from the isolation in international relations and deeper cooperation between the nation-states based on the international financial and economic organisations such as the iMF and the World Bank.

Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 17? An Empirical Investigation of the Effectiveness of Aid Given to Boost Developing Countries’ Tax Revenue and Capacity

Abstract Developing economies need to increase their tax revenue. The international community is keenly aware of this challenge and recently dedicated substantial resources and advocacy to assist countries in mobilizing domestic tax revenue as part of the Sustainable Development Goals. Considering, however, the extensive research that foreign aid is often ineffective, it is not obvious that this tax assistance will help developing countries raise revenue. In this article, we assess the impact of international assistance programs for tax purposes (i.e., tax aid) on tax revenue generation, indirect taxation reform, and informality across the developing world. We analyze panel data of 137 developing countries between 1972 and 2013 from the AidData, International Centre for Tax and Development, and World Development Indicators, and World Bank Project Data datasets. We also assess survey data from the World Bank's Enterprise Survey and World Values Survey. Our findings indicate that tax aid does not robustly increase the number of taxpayers, especially in the short run. However, tax aid is effective in generating domestic tax revenue in precisely the way international agencies advocate, namely a strong reliance on the value-added tax. The data underlying this article are available on the ISQ Dataverse, at https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/isq.

Warriors of Self-reliance: The Instrumentalization of Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

AbstractIn striking contrast to most other refugee groups, Afghan refugees in Pakistan during the 1980s have primarily been understood as a successfully self-reliant population. However, little work has hitherto focused on the international assistance programmes that sought to support their everyday self-reliance. Drawing on extensive archival research, this article presents four phases of self-reliance assistance for Afghan refugees in Pakistan between 1979 and 1995, which correspond to shifts in broader economic trends from Keynesian economics to neoliberalism. At different times the practice of self-reliance assistance promoted large-scale collective employment, individual income-generation, protection for vulnerable populations unable to succeed in the market-based economy, and finally morphed into a form of self-governance through the ‘Afghanization’ of NGOs after the Cold War. These stages of self-reliance assistance encompass periods of humanitarian focus on so-called ‘refugee dependency syndrome’ and self-reliance as psycho-social support, holding parallels to the practice and discourse of contemporaneous Anglophone Western welfare systems. This article illuminates another chapter in the history of refugee self-reliance, and demonstrates the dynamism of self-reliance as both a concept and a practice.

How Mosul fell: the role of coup-proofing in the 2014 partial collapse of the Iraqi security forces

The Islamic State’s capture of the Iraqi city of Mosul in June 2014 was a seismic event. How can this be explained? This article answers this question by turning to the literature on anti-coup d’etat measures and its side effects. It argues that, to prevent a military coup, Prime Minister of Iraq Nouri al-Maliki engaged in extensive ‘coup-proofing’ methods such as purging rivals, ethnic staking, creating a parallel security force, and increasing intra-government surveillance. These measures were highly effective in preventing a possible military putsch but did greatly reduce the Iraqi troops’ capacity and willingness to fight. Ethnic stacking in particular resulted in mass troop desertions when the Islamic State advanced in 2014. In advancing this argument, this article not only helps us better understand the dramatic fall of Mosul, but may also assist states to strengthen other international assistance programmes for governments fighting domestic insurgencies.

Wind Energy Exploration over the Atacama Desert: A Numerical Model–Guided Observational Program

AbstractOver the past 15 years, Chile’s energy agencies have undertaken a series of projects aimed at evaluating the wind energy potential of the northern part of the country (western South America between 18° and 32°S), including the Atacama Desert. These projects have produced an unprecedented database of wind observations and ancillary meteorological data over an especially interesting climatic region, including more than 30 sites with 20-m meteorological masts and six high towers (60–80 m) with multilevel wind and temperature measurements. Measuring periods vary between 1 and 10 years, with about half the stations having 5 or more years of data. Site selection was guided by the results of a mesoscale numerical model, so the program provides a good example of modeling–observation interaction, as well as being a demonstration of a successful collaboration between government, university, and international assistance programs. This paper describes the publically available database of meteorological measurements, provides examples of regional climatological features revealed by the observations, compares observations with model results, and describes how the information provided by the program has contributed to the development of wind energy projects in the region.

The impact on education for librarianship and information studies of the Bologna process and related European Commission programmes – and some outstanding issues in Europe and beyond

The Bologna Declaration of 1999 is the basis for continuing reforms in higher education intended to support international mobility in employment within the European Union. This paper describes the standardised structure and nomenclature for courses that have been implemented, together with a credit transfer system, a quality assurance regime, and the ERASMUS and MUNDUS programmes that support international student mobility. However, the European Commission has left crucial aspects of the implementation of the Bologna principles to Member States, and several issues have arisen because of national variations. The paper expresses concerns about differences in assessment standards and conventions, and questions the relevance of various attempts that have been made to produce model lists of competences and curricula. The European Union’s international assistance programmes, TEMPUS and ALFA, have encouraged collaboration in assisting development in non-member states, but with limited effect, perhaps because of organisational changes that stemmed partly from the Bologna process. The changes in higher education stimulated the establishment of a pan-European association, EUCLID: the European association for library and information education and research, but the paper argues that the expectations of the founders of the association remain largely unfulfilled, and argues for more empirical research to review issues such as the academic level at which education for librarianship is undertaken, and the need for a European accreditation scheme.

Electoral breakthroughs in Croatia and Serbia: Women's organizing and international assistance

This article investigates the role of women's organizations and activists in the electoral breakthroughs in Serbia and Croatia in 2000. When, how, and to what effect, it asks, did women organize during transformational moments to promote their goals of political liberalization and gender equality? I argue that political opportunities—shaped by the domestic constellation of forces and international assistance programs—are essential to explaining political success. I identify what I call the insider/inclusionary strategy that characterizes women's organizing in Croatia and the outsider/oppositional strategy that characterizes women's organizing in Serbia. These strategies resulted in different immediate outcomes for women's political equality in the electoral breakthroughs in Croatia and Serbia.

International Assistance Programmes and the Reform of Vocational Education in the Western Balkans: Sources of Policy Failure

Over the last twenty years, numerous international assistance programmes have aimed to provide support for reconstruction and assist the policy reform process in the Western Balkans. In this context, concerns have arisen that poor government policies and inadequate donor coordination have reduced the effectiveness of such assistance. The paper discusses the sources of policy success and policy failure of such international assistance programmes within a principal-agent framework that models the influence of misaligned objectives, differing incentive structures, asymmetric information and moral hazard facing the different actors in the institutional structure of assistance programmes. In this political economy approach the varying influences on multiple principals and agents are key determinants of the effectiveness of policy. The paper takes a sectoral view in examining assistance programmes in the vocational education sector, where large donor effort has been applied in the Western Balkans over the last decade to modernise and reform the education system. The specific focus is on secondary vocational education in Serbia. The paper identifies causes of policy failure in EU pre-accession assistance in this key policy area.

Africa and ICT: A Chance for Breakthrough?

This article reviews the current situation of ICTs in Africa and assesses the degree of proliferation of new technologies around the continent. Particular attention is paid to exploring the problem of the digital divide and specifying the key factors that impede the spread of ICT progress on the continent. There are several realistic ways in which African nations may benefit from ICT, including immediate and tangible results in medicine, education and economic development. The authors set forth a number of recommendations on bridging the infrastructure and knowledge gap. They also evaluate the efficiency of regional initiatives and international assistance programmes to Africa for enhancing the ICT sector and study the phenomenon of cultural imperialism in this respect. In conclusion, the authors speculate on the future of ICT in Africa and on the continent's ability to bridge the development gap with the help of new technologies.

Implementing the montreal protocol in china: Use of cleaner technology in two industrial sectors

An analysis of the household refrigeration sector and the foams sector investigates how Chinese enterprises have adopted cleaner technologies involving substitutes for ozone depleting substances (ODSs), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The performance of the household refrigeration sector in reducing ODS consumption has been superior to that of the foams sector, even though required technology changes are relatively simple for the foams sector. There are two explanations for this outcome. First, market demand matters. The influence of the global market, multinational corporations, intense (and occasionally misleading) advertising about non-CFC products, and severe competition for consumers caused China's principal refrigerator manufacturers to adopt non-CFC production technologies. Similar incentives did not exist for enterprises in the foams sector. Second, industrial structure matters. The foams sector includes a large number of small enterprises with limited financial and technical capability and weak access to information and technology, and these factors obstructed technological change. In general, assistance from the Multilateral Fund established under the Montreal Protocol has motivated enterprises to shift to ODS reduction technologies, but complex and lengthy procedures for accessing the Multilateral Fund, difficulties in finding appropriate suppliers of non-CFC technologies, and insufficient financial and technical capabilities of many enterprises have slowed down this shift. Our results provide a foundation for making changes in international assistance programs and China's strategies for CFC reduction.

People without fathers: Mozambicans in Swaziland 1888–1993

This article considers recent influxes of Mozambicans into Swaziland in the light of historical patterns of migration and incorporation. It explores the perspectives of national and local leaders, migrants and refugees, revealing the weakness of accounts of outsiders’ integration which focus only on the views of national institutions and the public discourse of the hosting society. The distinction between ‘refugees’ and ‘economic migrants’ distorts the causes of migration and is blind to local, historically constructed notions of hospitality and community membership; it can also be damaging when used insensitively in international assistance programmes. The article argues that an assertion of Swazi identity and shared history as a strategy to legitimate community membership and to ascertain rights to distributed goods can succeed only in specific circumstances. By situating claims to kinship, common ethnicity and neighbourhood in a broader historical and political‐economic context, it shows them to be con...

Analysing Decentralization Policies in Developing Countries: a Political‐Economy Framework

digitalData = {"site":{"ip":"196.51.194.177","environment":"LIVE","website":"onlinelibrary.wiley.com","websiteCode":"pericles","serverDate":"2022-10-03"},"identities":[{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"b238ab85-6bb4-49e4-84ca-a0d9f3ee5a35"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"eabce89b-65c2-4a09-ab7c-bd2b3fea2f10"},{"type":"RegionUser","uuid":"3c5060a1-6620-438f-862b-902a4d4cd4ac"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"a86d27d2-6bcd-4b94-bca5-fe16f4882855"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"da88d808-3f7b-4bde-9210-10862b6d121b"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"8c72a733-117a-4bc9-a682-13475f13e6a3"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"756fc162-8722-461f-a077-ebffec4f4fae"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"cf9c85b9-7f3b-4309-aeaa-c41669cabe3b"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"db8b8d10-1aed-4809-b3ee-70938c569014"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"cdce41c2-a8de-4a64-a4d9-a85caaaa2314"},{"type":"RegionUser","uuid":"f77aa5fd-6816-433e-8f6b-5706f463f4ae"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"7a2a316d-5a37-4ccd-afdb-737bfb863a48"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"39f911ce-44b6-4dba-9978-8b2e947a8eb0"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"97587ffd-dcb4-4cb5-9986-a8ce611532bd"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"a46a154d-979f-41ba-b459-fd34df5c071f"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"b7acda8c-ce18-451b-a68d-e14b72f9b5b8"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"055a2bdd-861f-4fa7-bd49-9773db7e0e3e"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"b2dbfe27-ecae-4bb6-bb0d-d75e5caa3762"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"1a6297fb-6679-4882-a4c2-fdd124624edf"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"8032f17e-5050-4fb4-9c40-e1f6875d5c2b"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"ab743440-628f-4964-9216-9983ad3beadf"},{"type":"SmartGroupUser","uuid":"a4187e00-f28e-4754-9a0f-1eb306fb0679"}],"publication":{"item":{"title":"Analysing Decentralization Policies in Developing Countries: a Political‐Economy Framework","doi":"10.1111/j.1467-7660.1989.tb00340.x","access":"no","earliestDate":"1989-01-01","formats":["Cited by","First page image","PDF","References"],"topics":[{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Geography of Development","topicUri":"ge25"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING","topicUri":"ar"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"DEVELOPMENT STUDIES","topicUri":"ds"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Economic Development","topicUri":"ec50"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Public Policy & Administration","topicUri":"po70"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Human Geography","topicUri":"ge20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Social Movements / Social Change","topicUri":"so21"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Political Sociology","topicUri":"so20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Politics","topicUri":"po74"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"POLITICAL SCIENCE","topicUri":"po"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Development","topicUri":"ar82"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"General & Introductory Development Studies","topicUri":"ds00"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"GEOGRAPHY","topicUri":"ge"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ECONOMICS","topicUri":"ec"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Planning","topicUri":"ar80"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"SOCIOLOGY","topicUri":"so"}]},"group":{"title":"","doi":"10.1111/dech.1989.20.issue-1","access":"no","volume":"20","issue":"1","coverDate":"1989-01-01","topics":[{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Geography of Development","topicUri":"ge25"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING","topicUri":"ar"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"DEVELOPMENT STUDIES","topicUri":"ds"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Economic Development","topicUri":"ec50"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Public Policy & Administration","topicUri":"po70"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Human Geography","topicUri":"ge20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Social Movements / Social Change","topicUri":"so21"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Political Sociology","topicUri":"so20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Politics","topicUri":"po74"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"POLITICAL SCIENCE","topicUri":"po"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Development","topicUri":"ar82"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"General & Introductory Development Studies","topicUri":"ds00"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"GEOGRAPHY","topicUri":"ge"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ECONOMICS","topicUri":"ec"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Planning","topicUri":"ar80"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"SOCIOLOGY","topicUri":"so"}]},"series":{"title":"Development and Change","doi":"10.1111/(ISSN)1467-7660","access":"no","code":"14677660","issn":"0012-155X","eissn":"1467-7660","topics":[{"taxonomyUri":"gpt-sitename","topicLabel":"wly.devel.std_000044","topicUri":"wly.devel.std_000044"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"GEOGRAPHY","topicUri":"ge"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"General & Introductory Development Studies","topicUri":"ds00"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Politics","topicUri":"po74"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"SOCIOLOGY","topicUri":"so"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Economic Development","topicUri":"ec50"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Public Policy & Administration","topicUri":"po70"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Human Geography","topicUri":"ge20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"DEVELOPMENT STUDIES","topicUri":"ds"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING","topicUri":"ar"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Geography of Development","topicUri":"ge25"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Social Movements / Social Change","topicUri":"so21"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Urban Development","topicUri":"ar82"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Political Sociology","topicUri":"so20"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"POLITICAL SCIENCE","topicUri":"po"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"Planning","topicUri":"ar80"},{"taxonomyUri":"global-subject-codes","topicLabel":"ECONOMICS","topicUri":"ec"},{"taxonomyUri":"gpt-zonename","topicLabel":"dev-change_DECH","topicUri":"dev-change_dech"}]}},"page":{"subPage":"Abstract","page":"Article/Chapter View","pageGroup":"Publication Pages","title":"title","errorCode":200}}

Dairy Marketing Modernization as a Means of Nutritional Improvement: Some Developmental Considerations

IMPROVEMENT in human nutrition is increasingly cited as an objective of international assistance programs. Successes in expanding foodgrain production have allowed consideration of the composition of food intake and human effectiveness in physical and mental activity. Nutritionists of both the agricultural and medical schools exhibit a strong attachment to milk consumption, with sound biological and pathological reasoning. Agricultural economists concerned with the level and distribution of rural income justify dairy development with reference to high income and price elasticity of demand for dairy products and labor intensity of the enterprise. Unfortunately, bulkiness and perishability of the product impede realization of these gains. Reliance on international transfer of transport and processing technology in India has resulted in a generally poor economic performance. While geographically expanding market access, modernized fluid milk marketing systems are not competitive with old established milk marketing systems and fail to achieve wide distribution of nutritional benefit to segments of the population in greatest need. Transfered capital-intensive processing and packaging systems have been supplemented with labor-intensive procurement and distribution arrangements. Resulting improvement in labor productivity has been minimal despite extremely large increased investment per unit of labor employed. Reliance on the reconstitution of concessional nonfat milk powder imports to improve plant utilization and nutritional performance is hazardous owing to instability of supplies. Unavailability of supplies would seriously jeopardize the existing modern systems. Dependence on foreign equipment and financial support aggravates the resolution of conflicting objectives in public sector enterprises, particularly with respect to increasing milk consumption in low-income communities and achieving public and private employment objectives. Capital-intensive technological innovation in marketing systems in many less developed countries poses a greater employment threat than such innovations in agricultural production. Displaced agricultural labor may be of the disguised form or likely shift to agricultural trade. Displaced labor from the long-established traditional marketing systems may enter the urban labor pool. The competition that causes rapid innovation in the European and United States food processing equipment industry does not prevail in developing countries, with the consequence that individual firms may recommend transfer of newly obsolescent equipment, thus extending production runs. Under these circumstances firms may be reluctant to support recommendations to developing countries with appropriate examination of technical and organizational requirements. Institutional innovations are required to ensure that national and international aiding institutions, in cooperation with private industry, are oriented to servicing current needs in developing country agricultural markets rather than engaging in the creation of demand for new food forms and technologies. Past programs in dairy development have assumed a high degree of transferability of food consumption habits and preferences. Ready acceptance of such changes is not characteristic of communities in need of nutritional improvement. Certain countries, such as Cyprus and Lebanon, have achieved large increases in per capita milk consumption through dairy product imports. Dairy development for import substitution in these countries could reduce milk consumption among low income groups, with resultant deterioration in nutritional status accompanied by a narrow distribution of consequent agricultural income gains.