Internal Working Models Of Self Research Articles

The Relevance of Internal Working Models of Self and Others for Equine-Assisted Psychodynamic Psychotherapy.

Attachment characteristics play a key role in mental health and in understanding mental disorders. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the role the attachment characteristics can play in treatment effects in adult patients with intrapsychic and interpersonal problems who underwent Equine-assisted Short-term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy (ESTPP). In the first part of the study, we compared the effects of ESTPP to treatment-as-usual from a previous dataset regarding psychological dysfunction. For this, an explorative experimental non-randomized pre-treatment and 1-year post-treatment design was used. A mixed model revealed a significant decline in psychological dysfunction for both conditions, with no significant difference between the two. In the second part of the study, we examined the course of ESTPP effects over the period of 1 year when controlled for attachment styles and, subsequently, for internal working models of self and others. To this end, measurements were taken at baseline, 2 months waiting time, one-week intensive module, 6 months, and one year after the start of the treatment. Mixed models accounted for repeated measures showed significant improvements in psychological dysfunction, remoralization, and depression for ESTPP patients over time. The study implies that models of self and others may be used to predict the course of effects, which is relevant in determining what works for whom. In particularly, duration and intensity of therapy and a focus on the Model of Self seem relevant for shaping a more personalized treatment. ESTPP seems beneficial for patients with low pre-treatment attachment security.

Rejection sensitivity and vulnerable attachment: associations with social support and PTSD symptoms in trauma survivors

ABSTRACT Background Although social support has been consistently associated with recovery from psychological trauma and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), individual differences in seeking or benefitting from social support in trauma survivors are not well understood. Factors associated with negative internal working models of self and others, emotion dysregulation, and interrupted bonds with an individual’s social support groups such as vulnerable attachment and rejection sensitivity could contribute to lower experienced social support and higher levels of PTSD. Objective The objective of this study was to test a theoretically informed model and investigate how psychosocial variables such as vulnerable attachment styles, rejection sensitivity, and social support are associated with PTSD. Method Using a cross-sectional survey and path analyses in 141 survivors of trauma (aged 18–69, M = 25.20), the relationship between vulnerable attachment style, rejection sensitivity, and PTSD were investigated. Results Higher vulnerable attachment, rejection sensitivity, and lower social support were found to be significant predictors of PTSD symptoms (f 2 = 0.75). The relationships from vulnerable attachment to PTSD were mediated by rejection sensitivity and perceived social support. The results supported and extend theoretical models of PTSD that posit a role for predisposing factors in the development and maintenance of the disorder. Conclusion The findings suggest a potential benefit of identifying vulnerable groups that could benefit from a refinement of existing PTSD interventions by targeting the maladaptive effects of vulnerable attachment and rejection sensitivity, thus allowing the individual to draw effectively on social support networks.

UNUTRAŠNJI RADNI MODELI AFEKTIVNE VEZANOSTI KAO PREDIKTORI MRAČNE TRIJADE

The basic goal of this research was to examine whether internal working models of self and significant others are significant predictors of dark triad personality traits. The concept of an internal working model is the key link in attachment theory which connects past experiences with current patterns of behavior, maintained by dysfunctional cognitive schemas developed by generalizing aversive experiences. The dark triad consists of narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellism. The instruments used were the Family Attachment Questionnaire by Brenan et al. (1998), and Short Dark Triad (SDT3) by Jones & Paulhus (2014). The sample of the research consisted of N = 123 participants, age 20 to 63, with an average age of M = 30.41, SD = 9.06. Males formed 43% of sample. Regression analyses show that model which consists of anxiety and avoidance dimensions is significant predictor of Machiavellism, F (2,120) = 6.26, p = .003, R2 = .09, and they predict 9% of variance, as well as psychopathy, F(2,120) = 8.98, p <.000, R2 = .13, where they predict 13% of variance, but not narcissism, F(2,120) = 0.24, p = .79, R2= .01, in which model predicted only 1% of variance. Avoidance is statistically significant and positive predictor of psychopathy (β = .29, p = .003), and anxiety is statistically significant and positive predictor of Machiavellism (β = .26, p = .004), as well as psyhopathy (β = .22, p = .025). The results of study suggest that these traits are founded on an image of self as an inadequate person and the world as a hostile place, in which other persons will try to harm us if we dare to be open towards them. Manipulation and emotional insensitivity of psychopaths and Machiavelists should be interpreted as a way to reach compromise with these key beliefs and attitudes. On the other hand, narcissism did not correlate with working modes, possibly because of low levels of insight in these persons who are strongly invested in maintaining grandiose self. Key words: affective attachment, internal working models, dark triad

Restoring the sanctuary of the valued self: Working with post traumatic stress in brief dynamic therapy

Drawing principally from the conceptual framework of Horowitz the author outlines an effective method of working within a short-time frame to enable staff who have been traumatised in their working roles to restore a sense self-coherence and self-esteem with a resulting lessening of symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress. A traumatic event is seen to result in the activation of dormant enduring schemas emanating from childhood that are at odds with established adult internal working models of self and other that hitherto have formed the basis of an individual’s view of himself and others. This in turn results in a disruption to an individual’s sense of a coherent narrative and a concomitant fracturing of the sanctuary of the valued sense of self. Restoring a meaningful and coherent narrative, through processing the story of the trauma, and re-schematising, is highlighted as a key feature of therapeutic restoration. Grieving the loss of meaning that arises from the trauma in a way that is approached carefully to lessen the likelihood of emotional flooding which can otherwise overwhelm defences and retraumatise the client, is also seen to be a key aspect of healing and restoring the sanctuary of the valued self. These themes are illustrated by two case examples and three short vignettes.

Intergenerational Depressive Symptoms and the Impact of Adolescent Attachment: A Systematic Review

John Bowlby’s theory of attachment has inspired numerous studies which have concluded that insecure attachment can contribute to the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. It has also spurred research confirming that other environmental factors, such as parental depressive symptoms, can contribute to the development of insecure attachment in adolescents. However, few studies have investigated how insecure adolescent attachment works as a mechanism in the relationship between adolescent and parental depressive symptoms. Accordingly, this systematic review was conducted to better ascertain how attachment is related to the development of adolescent depressive symptoms in the context of parental depressive symptoms. Inclusion criteria for this review were met if the child study population had a mean age in our identified “adolescent” range (age 10–19), if depressive symptoms were measured in at least one parent and their adolescent child, and if adolescent attachment was related to (i.e., mediated or moderated) the intergenerational relationship between depressive symptoms. A total of nine studies were identified searching among three databases (APA PsychNET, Academic Search Elite and PubMed) and one search engine (Google Scholar) through March 2020. The overall sample of this review included mothers (N = 1,684), fathers (N = 123), and adolescents (N = 1805). Samples for the original studies were recruited from both clinical and community populations, with clinical samples being determined by both parental and adolescent levels of depressive symptoms in different studies. Attachment was measured as both an internal working model of self or “state of mind” and as a behavior in which a stressed child seeks comfort or support from an attachment figure acting as a “secure base.” Measurements of attachment were taken at varying stages in child development ranging from infancy through adolescence. Additionally, most reviewed studies did not include fathers or much racial or social class diversity. Overall, the review determined that both conceptualizations of attachment (internal working model and support-seeking behavior) successfully mediated or moderated the relationship between maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms.

Erikson and the Relational Context of Identity: Strengthening Connections With Attachment Theory

ABSTRACT In our contribution to this special issue devoted to reflections on Erik Erikson’s theorizing in Identity Youth and Crisis, 50 years later, we present the value of integrating attachment theory with Erikson’s conceptualization of identity development within a dynamic relational context. We attend closely to how internal working models of self and other link with identity development across time and relationships. We describe how attachment security, initially developed in early childhood, sets the stage for how adolescents’ approach identity formation processes and how both identity and attachment security operate together throughout adulthood. Three streams of research are offered for empirical examination of the identity-relational interface to elucidate processes and products of the intricate dance of identity and attachment.

Adult attachment internal working model of self and other in Chinese culture: Measured by the Attachment Style Questionnaire — Short Form (ASQ-SF) by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT)

According to the study by Griffin and Bartholomew (1994), in Western context, the adult attachment internal working model was found to consist two components: (i) the self model, and (ii) the other model. The current study was grounded on Griffin's and Bartholomew's study to investigate the adult internal working model of self and other in Chinese context. Moreover, by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT), the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ; Van Oudenhoven et al., 2001) was condensed to become the ASQ — Short Form. In addition, the four attachment prototypes, namely, secure, fearful-avoidant, preoccupied and dismissing as well as the adult internal working model of self and other were found to be present in Chinese culture.

Exploring the relationship difficulties of Iranian adolescents with conduct disorder: a qualitative content analysis

Conduct disorder is characterized by aggressive behaviors, deceitfulness or theft, destruction of property and serious violations of rules prior to age 18 years. The object relations theory provides an integrative model to understand the problems of conduct disorder, and proposes that child-caregiver relationships develop the internal working models of self and others. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship difficulties of Iranian adolescents with conduct disorder. This study was a qualitative directed content analysis research. The in-depth interview was conducted with nine male adolescents aged 12-17 years who had conduct disorder with or without substance use disorder at the reformatory in Tehran. All tape-recorded data were fully transcribed and analyzed. The relations with different objects including parents, siblings, relatives, friends, peers, teachers, other school members, colleagues and employers were analyzed, and four themes were extracted: 1) Object relations based on insecurity and fear; 2) Object relations based on inability and abjection; 3) Object relations based on pessimism and mistrust; 4) Object relations based on non-maintenance of boundaries and limits. The importance of object relations and attachment problems in adolescents with conduct disorder, and their need to participate in special intervention programs should be reconsidered.

Attachment in Middle Childhood: Associations With Information Processing.

Attachment theory suggests that internal working models of self and significant others influence adjustment during development by controlling information processing and self-regulation. We provide a conceptual overview on possible mechanisms linking attachment and information processing and review the current literature in middle childhood. Finally, we discuss and suggest future directions for research in this field.

Insecure attachment and depressive symptoms: Forgiveness of self and others as moderators

AbstractMost of the research on forgiveness has examined forgiveness of others, but not forgiveness of self even though researchers have argued that the latter deserves more attention. To fill this gap in the literature, and based on attachment theory's internal working models of self and others, this study examined forgiveness of self and others as moderators in the association between insecure attachment and depressive symptoms. A total of 403 undergraduate students participated in the study. Results supported the moderator role of forgiveness of self. Specifically, at high levels of forgiveness of self, the association between insecure attachment (i.e., anxiety and avoidant attachment) and depressive symptoms was not significant. The results did not support forgiveness of others as a moderator.

Attachment anxiety moderates the relationship between childhood maltreatment and attention bias for emotion in adults

Research indicates that some individuals who were maltreated in childhood demonstrate biases in social information processing. However, the mechanisms through which these biases develop remain unclear—one possible mechanism is via attachment-related processes. Childhood maltreatment increases risk for insecure attachment. The internal working models of self and others associated with insecure attachment may impact the processing of socially relevant information, particularly emotion conveyed in facial expressions. We investigated associations among child abuse, attachment anxiety and avoidance, and attention biases for emotion in an adult population. Specifically, we examined how self-reported attachment influences the relationship between childhood abuse and attention bias for emotion. A dot probe task consisting of happy, threatening, and neutral female facial stimuli was used to assess possible biases in attention for socially relevant stimuli. Our findings indicate that attachment anxiety moderated the relationship between maltreatment and attention bias for happy emotion; among individuals with a child abuse history, attachment anxiety significantly predicted an attention bias away from happy facial stimuli.

The Importance of Object Memories for Older Adults

The memories of treasured objects are essential in giving life meaning. In the process of development in later adulthood, most changes involve significant loss including loss of physical and mental ability, loss of family and friends, and loss of possessions. Objects and their associated memories are especially important in maintaining an internal working model of self. This study explores the roles and functions of object memories in the lives of elders in a residential home. An interview process is used to examine the functions and memories of objects for elderly men and women. These objects and memories became the means of communicating the substance, meaning, and justification of a life history. Good long-term care facilities are places where the elderly are respected and allowed and encouraged to have personal items.

A Prototype-Based Model of Adult Attachment for Clinicians

Models of adult attachment have proven to be useful for understanding illness behavior, stress responses, susceptibility to disease processes, and psychotherapeutic approaches to difficult patients. Two methods of assessing patterns of attachment, using self-report instruments and using techniques such as the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), are only weakly related and each has drawbacks for clinical use. We have previously assessed commonalities and differences in the descriptions of attachment patterns that emerge from these schools and synthesized them in empirically based attachment prototypes. In this companion article, we describe a prototype-based model of attachment. This model defines dimensions of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance as composites of particular aspects of internal working models of self and other, behavior in current close relationships, patterns of expression of affect, and narrative coherence. The model emphasizes the clinical importance of the severity of attachment insecurity, defined as a dimension which incorporates problems in the previously listed domains of attachment as well as deficits in mentalizing, self-agency, and resolution of trauma. The model locates the central tendencies of prototypic ("textbook") descriptions of four patterns of attachment (secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful/disorganized) while avoiding definitions of the boundaries between categories of attachment. We compare the prototype-based model to the two most prominent current models of attachment, the 4-category, 2-dimension model derived from self-report methods of assessment and categories of "attachment states of mind" derived from the Adult Attachment Interview. Finally, we discuss limitations of the prototype-based model and areas requiring further research.

Positive mental health: a research agenda

Vaillant provides a thoughtful review of seven models for conceptualizing positive mental health. He proposes that the best way to understand mental health is to conduct longitudinal studies of multiple populations, in culturally diverse settings, using instruments that assess multiple conceptualizations. Looking to future, I agree with Vaillant that there is a need for theoretical and empirical work to establish the most useful conceptualization of positive mental health. On the theoretical side, there is a need to clarify and integrate the current overlapping but distinct con- structs into a broader overarching framework. On the empirical side, there is a need to develop and refine instruments for measuring positive mental health constructs at multiple levels, including self-report, behavioral ratings, psychophysiological responding, and neurobiological functioning. There is also a need to link research on positive mental health to the psychology of normal and abnormal functioning across the lifespan. In particular, it would be valuable to determine the links between positive mental health and intelligence, temperament, personality traits, self-regulation and attachment, through genetic, neurobiological, psychometric and developmental research. Positive mental health must be distinguished from intelligence as psychometrically defined, and from other forms of intelligence in models such as Gardner’s multiple intelligences 1. Clearly a high IQ and positive mental health are not synonymous. Nevertheless, mental health and intelligence (as defined by IQ tests) both involve effective problem-solving and adaptation to the environment. An important research question concerns the nature and extent of the overlap between psychometrically assessed intelligence and positive mental health across the lifespan. Vaillant points out that positive mental health has been equated with social and emotional intelligence. There is also an argument that existential or spiritual intelligence, or indeed an advanced stage of moral development 2, may be central to positive mental health, given the well-established correlation between religious practices and well-being 3. It remains unclear what the relationships are between positive mental health and other forms of intelligence, such as musical, kinesthetic and naturalistic. Similar arguments may be made for the constructs of giftedness and creativity. It is plausible that certain individuals may be exceptionally gifted or creative in the way they address issues relevant to their own positive mental health. Implicit in temperament and personality trait theories is a conception of positive mental health as involving a particular type of profile. For example, infants with easy temperaments may be viewed as having better mental health than those with difficult or behaviorally inhibited temperaments. With trait theories, such as the five factor theory of personality, individuals with high levels of emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience may be viewed as having better mental health than those with other profiles. Vaillant alludes to this type of approach in his section on mental health as the presence of multiple human strengths. However, I wish to underline the importance of linking research on positive mental health to extensive existing knowledge about temperament and personality traits 4. A vast literature on self-regulation throws light on factors relevant to the capacity to persist in motivated action while tolerating distress 5. This capacity may be an aspect of positive mental health, and is probably related to adaptive defense mechanisms discussed in Vaillant’s section on resilience. Research on self-regulation and positive mental health should be an important future priority. Studies of attachment have shown that secure and insecure attachment styles may be identified across the life- span, with secure attachment styles being associated with better psychological adjustment 6. Individuals with secure attachment styles, as a result of sensitive parenting in early life, develop internal working models of self and others that entail an expectation that others will reliably be available to meet attachment needs. This trusting disposition is arguably a key component of positive mental health, and an area requiring further investigation. An integration of current models of positive mental health addressed in Vaillant’s paper into an overarching framework, and research linking such an integrative model to intelligence, temperament, personality traits, self-regulation and attachment will ground our understanding of positive mental health within current knowledge about normal lifespan development, and provide a scientific basis for developing intervention programs to promote positive mental health.

Adult attachment and emotional awareness impairment: a multimethod assessment

Our objective was to explore the relationships between adult attachment and various aspects of emotional awareness, including alexithymia and level of emotional awareness. Participants were 112 university students who completed the Attachment Style Questionnaire, the Bermond–Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ), and the Level of Emotional Awareness Scale. We found that alexithymia was positively related to the avoidant attachment style and negatively with the anxious attachment style. Anxious style-but not avoidance-was also related to the level of emotional awareness. An analysis of the four attachment categories revealed subtle differences regarding the subscales of the BVAQ. Findings are discussed with reference to internal working models of self and others, highlighting the relationship between emotional awareness impairment and interpersonal behaviour.

The Reliability and Validity of the Korean Version of State Adult Attachment Measure

ObjectivesZZAdult attachment is a relatively stable disposition, rooted in internal working models of self and relationship patterns. However, findings reported from recent research have suggested that levels of attachment anxiety, avoidance, and security are also affected by situational factors. The State Adult Attachment Measure (SAAM) was developed for the purpose of capturing temporary fluctuations in the sense of attachment security and insecurity. In this study, we examined the reliability and validity of the Korean version of the State Adult Attachment Measure (K-SAAM). MethodsZZK-SAAM, Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire-Revised (ECR-R), Relationship Questionnaire (RQ), Korean version of Positive Affective and Negative Affect Schedule (KPANAS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (R-DAS), and Toronto Alexithymia Scale 20-K (TAS 20-K) were administered to 180 subjects in the community. Exploratory factor analyses and correlation analyses among related variables were conducted. ResultsZZScores on the K-SAAM demonstrated high internal consistency, with corrected item-total correlations from .56 to .87. Results of exploratory factor analysis yielded three reliable subscales measuring state levels of attachment-related anxiety, avoidance, and security. Results of additional analyses demonstrated both convergent validity and discriminant validity of the K-SAAM. ConclusionZZThe results reported here are highly supportive of the reliability, validity, and utility of the K-SAAM as a state measure of attachment. This new measure will allow clinicians to assess various temporary changes in attachment levels and to examine the efficacy of attachment-based psychotherapy. The K-SAAM has the potential to advance the field in understanding of the dynamics of adult attachment. J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc 2012;51:147-155

Clinical significance of cross-cultural competencies (CCC) in social work practice

Although culturally competent practice is ethically sound and sociopolitically valued, the ways in which cultural competencies affect clients' change processes have been little explored in either clinical or cultural literatures. With few theoretical guidelines, social workers in their daily practice are faced with significant challenges to integrate both clinically grounded and culturally competent practice in fostering clients' changes. This article proposes a theoretical integration of clinically significant cultural practice in social work. Drawing from the therapeutic alliance research, this article proposes relationally focused cultural competencies to promote the construct of cross-cultural competencies (CCC). CCC has three roles that can promote changes in clinical social work practice. It can (1) mediate the working alliance; (2) serve as a pathway to a client's internal working model of self and other; and (3) provide corrective emotional experience. The implications for cross-cultural psychotherapy practice, training, and research are also discussed.

Latency-Aged Children with Attachment Disturbances

Psychoanalytic theory and practice has increasingly accepted the importance of attachment relationships in psychic development. However, there have been only very limited efforts to develop psychoanalytically informed interventions for older adopted and foster children who show significant disturbances in attachment. This paper reviews theory and research that lays groundwork for a framework for conceptualizing treatment needs for attachment disordered children. Two cases of conjoint work with parents and their latency age sons are presented. The treatment cases highlight the importance of work to increase parents' reflective functioning capacities and the need to challenge children's defensively excluded early internal working models of self and caregivers.

Rejection sensitivity and negative self‐beliefs as mediators of associations between the number of borderline personality disorder features and self‐reported adult attachment

AbstractThe present two studies examine associations between self‐reported adult anxious and avoidant attachment and the number of borderline personality disorder (BPD) features reported by student samples. In addition, they examine the mediating roles of rejection sensitivity (RS) (Studies 1 and 2) and negative self‐beliefs (Study 2) on associations, independent of neuroticism. In both studies, higher anxious and avoidant attachment were associated with reporting more features, and RS partially mediated these associations. In Study 2, the self‐belief negativity was an additional mediator. These factors partially mediated the impact of anxious attachment and fully mediated that of avoidant attachment. The results are consistent with an attachment‐based model of BPD that highlights the role of internal working models of self and others as antecedents of the sensitivity to rejection seen in many with BPD. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Childhood emotional maltreatment and later psychological distress among college students: The mediating role of maladaptive schemas

Objective Theoretically, exposure to experiences of emotional abuse (EA) and emotional neglect (EN) in childhood may threaten the security of attachment relationships and result in maladaptive models of self and self-in-relation to others. The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which EA and EN treatment by parents contributed uniquely to young adult maladaptive long-term outcome with respect to symptoms of anxiety, depression, and dissociation. The extent to which the relationships between EA and EN and later symptoms were mediated by specific internalized maladaptive interpersonal schemas was also explored. Methods Questionnaires completed by 301 college men and women (52% female) assessed perceptions of experiences of childhood abuse and neglect, exposure to parental alcoholism, current symptoms of psychological distress, and endorsement of maladaptive interpersonal schemas. Results Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that perceptions of childhood EA and EN each continued to exert an influence on later symptoms after controlling for gender, income, parental alcoholism, and other child abuse experiences. Both EA and EN were associated with later symptoms of anxiety and depression and were mediated by schemas of vulnerability to harm, shame, and self-sacrifice. Only EN was related to later symptoms of dissociation; this relationship was mediated by the schemas of shame and vulnerability to harm. Conclusion The findings are discussed from an attachment perspective, focusing on how early interactions with parents contribute to the development of internal working models of self and self-in-relation to others that influence later cognitive schemas and psychological adjustment. Practice implications Although emotional abuse and emotional neglect are the least studied of all forms of child maltreatment, they may be the most prevalent. The current findings suggest that how college students have evaluated and internalized these experiences may be even more important than the events themselves in determining the extent to which these experiences exert a long-term impact. For this reason, early intervention might be particularly important in helping to modify internal working models of the self as worthless, others as abusive, or the world as threatening and dangerous as a result of past abuse experiences. This study underscores the need for counselors to actively elicit and explore experiences of emotional abuse and neglect in clients, in addition to inquiring about other abuse experiences and types of family dysfunction. The results of this study also support existing data suggesting that internalized representational models of self and others are a key mechanism underlying the relationship between emotional maltreatment and later psychopathology. Young's schema questionnaire proved to be quite sensitive in detecting specific maladaptive schemas that mediated later difficulties with depression, anxiety, and dissociation. Targeting these negative schemas in therapy may help to ameliorate such symptoms. The therapeutic relationship provides a particularly effective context for developing more positive models of self and others, as well as providing a context to explore core relationship themes across different relationship contexts (e.g., intimate partner, parent, friend, and work relationships). In particular, if the assessment of the client reveals that dissociative symptoms are present, counselors can acknowledge the adaptive function that this strategy once served, while also addressing potential limitations to over-reliance on this coping strategy.