Intermediate Learners Of English Research Articles

Which one? AI-assisted language assessment or paper format: an exploration of the impacts on foreign language anxiety, learning attitudes, motivation, and writing performance

In recent years, language practitioners have paid increasing attention to artificial intelligence (AI)’s role in language programs. This study investigated the impact of AI-assisted language assessment on L2 learners’ foreign language anxiety (FLA), attitudes, motivation, and writing skills. The study adopted a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design. Divided between an experimental group (receiving AI-assisted assessment) and a control group (receiving paper-format assessment), the participants were 70 intermediate English learners from two intact university classes in Bangladesh. The TOEFL iBT writing section measured writing skills, while the study also investigated perceptions and experiences of FLA, attitudes, and motivation using narrative frames. Thematic analysis of the narrative data showed that AI-assisted assessment greatly raised learners’ motivation, improved attitudes about language acquisition, and lowered FLA. According to quantitative analysis, the pretest writing abilities across groups showed no appreciable variation. Even though the difference was not statistically significant on the posttest, the experimental group exceeded the control group. The results of this study imply that AI-assisted assessments can generate a helpful learning environment, lower anxiety, improve attitudes, and increase motivation, thereby delivering useful information. Future studies should investigate long-term consequences, and further improvements to AI tools should optimize educational advantages—attitudes, motivation, and writing skills.

Explicit information and practice type can affect the L2 acquisition of plural marking

Abstract Previous research has indicated that explicit information (EI) about either the first language (L1) or second language (L2) along with task-essential practice can facilitate L2 learning (e.g., Fernández, 2008; McManus, 2022). However, little research has examined L1–L2 contrastive EI with L1/L2 practice. Targeting plural-marking accuracy, the present study sought to fill this gap by exposing 127 Japanese intermediate learners of English to six online treatment sessions across four conditions: (1) non-contrastive EI (pluralization rule explanation) + L2 practice, (2) contrastive EI + L2 practice, (3) as per Condition 2 + additional L1 practice (application of L2 pluralization to L1 through the Japanese suffix –tachi), and (4) using prepositions as a control, non-contrastive EI (prepositional rule explanation) + L2 practice. Accuracy was tested at pre/post/delayed intervals using an acceptability judgement task (reading) and a picture description task (writing). Statistical analyses demonstrated greater gains from the contrastive variables in the immediate post-test, with L1 practice appearing especially beneficial, despite improvements diminishing in the delayed post-test. Supplementary data from retroactive interviews and questionnaire responses indicated favourable orientations towards the intervention. The study advances understanding of how EI and practice type can be used to maximize L2 learning through web-based practices tailored to the nature of the learning problem.

Modeling the Contributions of Perceived Teacher Autonomy Support and School Climate to Chinese EFL Students' Learning Engagement.

Given the value of student engagement and its impact on academic performance, it is critical to identify factors that influence student engagement in different educational contexts. To do so, we examined the contributions of perceived teacher autonomy support and school climate in English as a foreign language (EFL) students' learning engagement. We conducted online surveys of 331 Chinese intermediate English learners. We substantiated the validity of the survey scales for measuring these three latent variables through confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), and we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to identify interrelationships in these variables of interest. Both perceived teacher autonomy support and school climate were significantly and positively related to student engagement, with school climate more strongly correlated than teacher autonomy support. These findings suggest that teacher autonomy support and a positive school climate are important contributors to student engagement in EFL classrooms, and we discussed practical implications of these discoveries for EFL teachers.

The Role of Letter-Speech Sound Integration in Native and Second Language Reading: A Study in Native Japanese Readers Learning English.

The automatic activation of letter-speech sound (L-SS) associations is a vital step in typical reading acquisition. However, the contribution of L-SS integration during nonalphabetic native and alphabetic second language (L2) reading remains unclear. This study explored whether L-SS integration plays a similar role in a nonalphabetic language as in alphabetic languages and its contribution to L2 reading among native Japanese-speaking adults with varying English proficiency. A priming paradigm in Japanese and English was performed by presenting visual letters or symbols, followed by auditory sounds. We compared behavioral and event-related responses elicited by congruent letter-sound pairs, incongruent pairs, and baseline condition (symbol-sound pairs). The behavioral experiment revealed shorter RTs in the congruent condition for Japanese and English tasks, suggesting a facilitation effect of congruency. The ERP experiment results showed an increased early N1 response to Japanese congruent pairs compared to corresponding incongruent stimuli at the left frontotemporal electrodes. Interestingly, advanced English learners exhibited greater activities in bilateral but predominantly right-lateralized frontotemporal regions for the congruent condition within the N1 time window. Moreover, the enhancement of P2 response to congruent pairs was observed in intermediate English learners. These findings indicate that, despite deviations from native language processing, advanced speakers may successfully integrate letters and sounds during English reading, whereas intermediate learners may encounter difficulty in achieving L-SS integration when reading L2. Furthermore, our results suggest that L2 proficiency may affect the level of automaticity in L-SS integration, with the right P2 congruency effect playing a compensatory role for intermediate learners.

Exploring factors affecting foreign language achievement: The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy, and L2 grit

This study investigated the effects of growth mindset and self-efficacy on foreign language achievement (FLA) in a sample of 379 intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) while also incorporating the mediation of second language (L2) grit in a structural model. The measurement model was examined using confirmatory factor analysis, and mediation analysis was conducted following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) method to explore the mediating role of L2 grit in the relationship between growth mindset, self-efficacy, and FLA. The results revealed that both L2 grit and English self-efficacy directly predicted FLA. Moreover, the mediation analysis revealed that growth mindset influenced FLA indirectly through the mediating role of L2 grit. These findings suggest that fostering growth mindset and self-efficacy beliefs in language learners could enhance their FLA, and that the development of L2 grit may play a significant role in mediating the relationship between growth mindset and FLA. Implications of these results for language education are discussed, and suggestions for future research are considered.

Teachers’ translanguaging practices in providing written corrective feedback: An exploratory study of learners’ affective engagement with feedback

The present study investigated five intermediate English learners’ affective engagement with teacher-generated written corrective feedback. In addition, the mediating effects of the teacher’s translanguaging practices were examined. The data were collected from a total of 10 student essays with teacher feedback on them, followed by a series of qualitative interviews and stimulated recalls. On five of these essays, the teacher only provided feedback in English, but on the other five, she provided feedback in both English and Persian, the teacher’s and learners’ first language (L1). The analysis of the data showed that some of the learners valued the teacher’s feedback in Persian, while others sought to maximize the written English input they received from their teacher. During the stimulated recalls, some learners also mentioned that Persian feedback would be useful in providing meta-feedback. Moreover, the teacher showed her appreciation for using Persian when providing meta-feedback, but referred to some institutional constraints on using Persian. Overall, this study suggests that some learners may value teachers’ use of their L1 in written corrective feedback, thereby engaging with this feedback positively from an affective standpoint.

The impact of high-immersion virtual reality on foreign language anxiety

Public speaking, especially in a foreign language, is associated with increased anxiety. Research has shown the potential of virtual reality (VR) for simulating real-life experiences, allowing for public speaking practice in an ecological and safe environment. This between-subjects study investigated the effect of VR on foreign language anxiety (FLA) in public speaking practice. Intermediate learners of English participated in eight public speaking sessions over a three-month period, yielding 160 research observations. The experimental intervention took place in high-immersion VR with subjects wearing a VR headset and speaking in front of virtual audience. In the control intervention, subjects used a videoconferencing platform (Zoom) to speak in front of a real-life audience. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that practicing speaking in VR was associated with statistically significant lower FLA scores, compared with speaking practice using Zoom. The study found that VR technology had a positive effect on practicing public speaking in a foreign language. The research findings have practical implications for professionals and curriculum designers in various domains where public speaking skills are essential. For example, incorporating VR-based public speaking practice can benefit professionals preparing for a job interview, an elevator pitch, or a conference presentation. Curriculum designers can consider integrating VR simulations into language courses to provide students with realistic public speaking experiences. This approach can help students overcome language barriers, reduce anxiety, and develop their communication skills in a controlled and supportive environment.

An experimental study on reading in high‐immersion virtual reality

AbstractHigh‐immersion virtual reality (VR) is an increasingly valued environment for language learners. Although reading constitutes a core language skill, practicing reading in VR has received little attention. In this between‐subject, quantitative study, 79 intermediate learners of English at a German university were randomly assigned to view an interactive, multimedia‐rich story under two conditions. In the experimental condition, subjects (the VR group) experienced the story using a high‐immersion VR headset. In the comparison condition, subjects (the video group) watched a video recording (ie, screencast) of the same VR experience. In both conditions, the story was presented using identical captions in English, which served as the reading comprehension text. In addition to measuring the impact of VR on reading comprehension, validated questionnaires yielded data on the subjects' intrinsic motivation, sense of presence and cognitive load. The analysis produced several findings. First, t‐tests revealed the VR group was associated with statistically significantly higher reading comprehension scores compared with the video group (p = 0.03). Second, Wilcoxon signed‐rank tests showed that the VR treatment elicited statistically significantly higher levels of motivation (p ≤ 0.0001) and sense of presence (p ≤ 0.0001). Cognitive load was not significantly different between the groups (p = 0.22). Our main implication is that VR can be beneficial for reading practice. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic High‐immersion virtual reality (VR) is engaging and motivational. Engaging students to practice reading is important. Research on practicing reading in VR has received little attention. What this paper adds It examines the effectiveness of using VR for practicing reading. It shows that VR enhances motivation and the sense of presence when reading. Students report equal levels of cognitive load while reading subtitles in VR and reading subtitles in videos. Implications for practice and/or policy Our main implication is that VR can be beneficial for reading practice. VR could be used as a motivational tool to engage students in reading activities.

Classroom gesture instruction on second language learners' academic presentations: Evidence from Chinese intermediate English learners

Gesture has been recognized as an important aspect of second language (L2) acquisition, playing a vital role in L2 communication. Previous research has shown that L2 learners' communicative efficacy can be facilitated through gesture mediation. In particular, L2 learners may find gesture a useful tool to deliver their subject-related academic presentations. However, whether classroom gesture instruction could boost L2 learners' gesture use in academic speaking context and their overall presentation performance has rarely been explored. Drawing on activity theory, this study aims to investigate the potential role of gesture instruction in intermediate L2 English learners' gesture use and their academic presentation performance. Our study found that L2 learners who received classroom gesture instructions showed significant improvement in their use of gestures, and outperformed the control group in a post-test presentation session, showing improvement in all gesture types among which beats were significantly increased. These findings confirm the teachability of gesture to enhance Chinese L2 English learners' academic presentation skills, proving gesture as an indispensable instructional component in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classroom.

Chinese intermediate English learners outdid ChatGPT in deep cohesion: Evidence from English narrative writing

ChatGPT is a publicly available chatbot that can quickly generate texts on given topics, but it remains unknown whether the chatbot is as good as or even superior to human writers in all aspects of writing, and whether the chatbot's writing quality can be significantly improved by updating commands. To investigate these issues, this study compared writing performance on a narrative topic by ChatGPT and Chinese intermediate English (CIE) learners so as to reveal the chatbot's advantages and disadvantages in writing.The data were analyzed by virtue of the five discourse components using Coh-Metrix (a special instrument for analyzing language discourse), and the results revealed that ChatGPT performed better than human writers in narrativity, word concreteness, and referential cohesion, but worse in syntactic simplicity and deep cohesion in its initial version. After its commands were updated, the resulting version was better in its syntactic simplicity, but it still lagged far behind the CIE learners’ writing in deep cohesion. In addition, a correlation analysis of the discourse components suggests that narrativity was correlated with referential cohesion for both ChatGPT and the human writers, but the correlations varied within each group.

Are multiword frequency effects stronger in non-native than in native speakers?

Abstract This study investigated whether non-native English speakers showed a processing advantage for high-frequency multiword units (multiword frequency effects), and whether the effects differed between native and non-native speakers. Such a difference has been identified in relation to single-word processing. Native English speakers and intermediate learners of English with languages of different scripts (native speakers of Japanese and German) judged whether English multiword units were grammatical. A significant processing advantage was identified for both native and non-native participants. More importantly, the multiword frequency effects were stronger among non-native than native speakers. The discrepancy persisted even after including individual vocabulary knowledge as a predictor in the mixed-effect models. Furthermore, there was no significant different impact of the effects between two non-native groups, even though German participants responded quicker than Japanese participants. This indicates that the varying influence between L1 and L2 could be explained by within-language, not between-language, variables.

Group dynamic assessment vs. computerized dynamic assessment: impacts on L2 listening development, L2 students’ perfectionism, foreign language anxiety, and intrinsic motivation

Dynamic assessment is heavily based on Vygotskian socio-cultural theory and in recent years researchers have shown interest in the theory as a way to facilitate learning. This study attempted to examine the comparative effect of group dynamic assessment (GDA) and computerized dynamic assessment (CDA) on listening development, L2 learners’ perfectionism, anxiety, and intrinsic motivation. To this end, 91 intermediate learners of English were selected based on convenience sampling and were divided into 3 groups: a GDA, a CDA, and a control group (CG). After implementing the treatment, the tests conducted and the data gathered. The results of one-way ANOVA showed that both GDA and CDA were facilitative of listening development with a large effect size (effect size = .516), and the difference between them was nonsignificant (p > 0.05). The results further showed that both GDA and CDA could ameliorate perfectionism with a moderate effect size (effect size = .332), decrease anxiety with a small effect size (.218), and increase intrinsic motivation among L2 learners with a small effect size (effect size = .228). The findings can have implications for language practitioners, and materials developers. The implications of the study are discussed.

The effectiveness of automatic speech recognition in ESL/EFL pronunciation: A meta-analysis

AbstractThis meta-analytic study explores the overall effectiveness of automatic speech recognition (ASR) on ESL/EFL student pronunciation performance. Data with 15 studies representing 38 effect sizes found from 2008 to 2021 were meta-analyzed. The findings of the meta-analysis indicated that ASR has a medium overall effect size (g = 0.69). Results from moderator analyses suggest that (1) ASR with explicit corrective feedback is largely effective, while ASR with indirect feedback (e.g. ASR dictation) is moderately effective; (2) ASR has a large effect on segmental pronunciation but a small effect on suprasegmental pronunciation; (3) medium to long treatment duration of ASR results in higher learning outcomes, but short duration offers no differential effect compared to a non-ASR condition; (4) practicing pronunciation with peers in an ASR condition produces a large effect, but the effect is small when practicing alone; (5) ASR is largely effective for adult (i.e. 18 years old and above) and intermediate English learners. Overall, ASR is a beneficial application and is recommended for assisting L2 student pronunciation development.

The relationship between metacognition and multiple intelligence of Iranian elementary and intermediate EFL learners and their reading comprehension

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between metacognitive, multiple intelligence, and reading comprehension of elementary and intermediate EFL learners. To this end, the researchers recruited 60 elementary students of Hasanzadeh high school in grade 10th and 60 intermediate English learners from Bilan-Taymaz English institute in Kazeroun using the Oxford Placement Test. Afterward, the researchers administered the researcher-made reading comprehension test. Furthermore, the Multiple Intelligence Questionnaire and Metacognitions Questionnaire tests were conducted. Participants were asked to complete these questionnaires and to take the reading comprehension test through separate sessions on the Rubika app. The results revealed a significant relationship between the metacognition and reading comprehension of both elementary and intermediate EFL learners. Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between the multiple intelligences of Iranian elementary and intermediate EFL learners and their reading comprehension. According to the next results obtained through SPSS, the researchers found that there is a significant difference between the metacognition of the elementary and intermediate participants. The same result was obtained for multiple intelligence. Keywords: Iranian elementary EFL Learners, Iranian intermediate EFL learners metacognition, Multiple intelligence, Reading comprehension;

Human-machine dialogue modality of English Language oral skills testing among Chinese EFL students

With the development of computer technology and the development and application of interactive software, more and more second language oral examinations begin to adopt the form of "human-machine dialogue" as the main way of oral examination. However, the results of these experiments have not been validated in the Chinese context. Therefore, this study aims to identify the affecting factors of students’ performance in different English oral tests among Chinese EFL learners. The study used an experimental design. This paper designs and implements a simulated spoken English test of human-machine dialogue modality. 5 Chinese undergraduates students majoring in English language studies and 5 non-English majors are recruited to participate in the experiment. Also, in addition, the experiment also recruited 6 teachers with rich experience in teaching English as a second language as examiners. The results show that there are significant differences in the effective speech frequency in the two tests. Pearson value is.004, and reliability r value is R = 0.04, indicating significant reliability. In terms of hesitation, the duration of all subjects in Q1 and Q2 is significantly different (p<.01). Lexical errors and semantic errors were the most occurred mistakes among students. Finally, the subjects showed high level of anxiety. In terms of self-evaluation of speaking ability, only the group of intermediate English learners show significant differences in the self-evaluation of the two experiments test can truly reflect their oral English ability. This study recommends more research on the human-machine dialogue as the subjects in human-machine dialogue modality cannot get real-time feedback from the communication object, so the subjects are seldom able to notice and self-correct grammatical errors during the expression process. Fourth, the author analyzes and raises research questions about the mistakes made by the subjects in their oral expressions. The human-machine dialogue modality cannot guide the examinees through real-time communication and stimulate the examinees to express the examinee's grasp of relevant second language knowledge which the examiner wants to test.

Effective Ways to Improve the Intermediate English Learners’ Pronunciation: A Conceptual Paper

Effective Ways to Improve the Intermediate English Learners’ Pronunciation: A Conceptual Paper

The Concurrent Contribution of Input Flooding, Visual Input Enhancement, and Consciousness-Raising Tasks to Noticing and Intake of Present Perfect Tense

The present research sought to explore the combined contribution of input flooding, visual input enhancement, and consciousness-raising tasks on noticing and intake of the present perfect tense among Iranian EFL learners. Using a nonrandomized control group pretest-posttest design, the researchers attempted to see if instruction could enhance the intake and noticing of the targeted form. To this end, through convenience sampling, 65 lower intermediate learners of English were selected. The subjects were divided into a control group (N=32) and an experimental group (N=33). The experimental subjects were exposed to the three pedagogical techniques while the control subjects did not receive the techniques. The results of the independent samples t-test showed that the experimental group who had received seven teaching interventions significantly outperformed the control group. Furthermore, the obtained results from a chi-square goodness of fit revealed that during the consciousness-raising phase of the study, the experimental participants paid attention the most to the targeted form. The pedagogical implication of the current investigation is that ESL/EFL teachers can simultaneously implement these three techniques in their classes for the learners to both notice and intake the targeted form. Another implication of this research is that material developers can apply the findings of this study in the materials they are going to develop in the future.

Peer assessment in group-oriented classroom contexts: on the effectiveness of peer assessment coupled with scaffolding and group work on speaking skills and vocabulary learning

Peer learning, also known as collaborative learning, is based on social constructivism and contends that learning takes place more actively when students interact socially with their peers. This study sought to examine the effects of scaffolded peer assessment in group-oriented classrooms on developing speaking skills and enlarging the vocabulary size of language learners. To accomplish this objective, through cluster sampling, the researchers selected 37 lower-intermediate and 5 intermediate learners of English. Then, 20 lower-intermediate subjects were randomly assigned as the experimental group along with the 5 more proficient learners. In groups of 5, the intermediate learner was assigned the role of the mediator and was responsible for giving feedback to their peers. The rest of the subjects were assigned as the control group and there was no mediator in their group. Four instructional sessions were allocated to scaffolded peer assessment of speaking and four sessions were devoted to scaffolded peer assessment of vocabulary learning. In this randomized pre-test–post-test-delayed post-test trial, an independent sample t test, and a one-way repeated measures ANOVA were carried out. The results of the statistical analyses demonstrated the impact of scaffolded peer assessment on developing both speaking skills and enlarging learners’ vocabulary size with a large effect size. That is, by implementing scaffolded peer assessment in a group-oriented context both speaking skills and vocabulary knowledge can be developed. The pedagogical implication of this study is that language teacher can implement the notions of social constructivism and socio-cultural theory proposed by Vygotsky (Readings on the Development of Children 23:34-41, 1978) to expand and develop learners’ zone of proximal development.

Effects of Perceptual Learning Styles on Chinese EFL Learners’ Writing Proficiency in the Reading-writing Integrated Continuation Task

Previous studies have manifested that the reading-writing integrated continuation task has great language learning potential and linguistic alignment facilitated by the continuation task positively affects L2 learners’ written performance. As an individual difference construct, perceptual learning style has been investigated from its impact on EFL learning, while research on how it affects learners’ performance in the continuation task seems deficient. To this end, this study investigated the relationship between Chinese EFL learners’ perceptual learning style and writing proficiency in the reading-writing integrated continuation task. Participants were 46 intermediate learners of L2 English from two intact classes who were required to perform both independent topic writing and the continuation task. The results showed that 1) group and auditory style learners slightly outperformed on phrasal alignment while visual and tactile performed better on clausal alignment; 2) visual, tactile and auditory learners were likely to generate content-rich, well-organized and more accurate written production, but students’ linguistic fluency in topic writing outperformed that in the continuation task; 3) learners who prefer audio input showed in inferiority on the continuation writing. These findings confirm that perceptual learning style might be a mediator affecting learners’ linguistic alignment within the continuation task.

Assessment of L2 intelligibility: Comparing L1 listeners and automatic speech recognition

AbstractAn increasing number of studies are exploring the benefits of automatic speech recognition (ASR)–based dictation programs for second language (L2) pronunciation learning (e.g. Chen, Inceoglu & Lim, 2020; Liakin, Cardoso & Liakina, 2015; McCrocklin, 2019), but how ASR recognizes accented speech and the nature of the feedback it provides to language learners is still largely under-researched. The current study explores whether the intelligibility of L2 speakers differs when assessed by native (L1) listeners versus ASR technology, and reports on the types of intelligibility issues encountered by the two groups. Twelve L1 listeners of English transcribed 48 isolated words targeting the /ɪ-i/ and /æ-ε/ contrasts and 24 short sentences that four Taiwanese intermediate learners of English had produced using Google’s ASR dictation system. Overall, the results revealed lower intelligibility scores for the word task (ASR: 40.81%, L1 listeners: 38.62%) than the sentence task (ASR: 75.52%, L1 listeners: 83.88%), and highlighted strong similarities in the error types – and their proportions – identified by ASR and the L1 listeners. However, despite similar recognition scores, correlations indicated that the ASR recognition of the L2 speakers’ oral productions mirrored the L1 listeners’ judgments of intelligibility in the word and sentence tasks for only one speaker, with significant positive correlations for one additional speaker in each task. This suggests that the extent to which ASR approaches L1 listeners at recognizing accented speech may depend on individual speakers and the type of oral speech.