Trade Interests Research Articles

The Syro-Ephraimite War in the Context of Assyrian Trade Interests in the Southern Levant

The Syro-Ephraimite War in the Context of Assyrian Trade Interests in the Southern Levant

Global Trade Tensions: Analyzing the WTO Legality of the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act and Strategic Responses

With the profound changes in the global economic landscape and the increasing proximity of the United States and China in terms of power contrasts, the hegemonic anxiety of the U.S. has been increasing, leading to the adoption of a series of protection measures in the field of trade. Among them, the Inflation Reduction Act, as an important part of the U.S. trade protectionist policy, its implementation has not only aggravated the tension in international trade, but also violated the relevant rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO). This paper elaborates the specific content of the Act and its impact on international trade, especially its large-scale subsidy policy in the field of green energy and its potential impact on the global supply chain. Subsequently, this paper analyzes in depth the illegality of the Act under the WTO framework from the perspective of prohibited subsidies and non-discriminatory principles, and argues with specific cases. Finally, this paper puts forward China's response strategy, aiming to provide theoretical support and practical guidance for China in dealing with U.S. trade protectionist policies. The purpose of this paper is to reveal the nature and impact of the U.S. trade protectionism policy, to provide theoretical support for China to safeguard its legitimate rights and interests in global trade, and to provide useful reflections and insights for China to promote trade liberalization and facilitation, strengthen international cooperation, and jointly respond to challenges in the context of global economic integration.

Post-colonial Relations of Britain with India and Pakistan, 1947–71

Abstract The decolonization process of Britain in India was completed with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947. Because of the long colonial history in that area, it was natural that creating bilateral relations between Britain and the two former colonized parties (India and Pakistan) would be challenging and not free of issues. Furthermore, the two colonized parties were in a bitter relationship with each other. The major concern of this paper is to present the post-colonial bilateral relations of Britain with each country, India and Pakistan, between 1947 and 1971. It argues that multiple factors led Britain to maintain a balanced relationship with its former colony. These are: 1) British trade interests, 2) cold war relations, 3) wars between India and Pakistan, 4) Commonwealth issues, and above all, 5) British national interests in that region.

Studi Kualitatif terhadap Perdagangan Ekspor dan Impor dalam Kerangka Ekonomi Syariah: Kajian Prinsip dan Praktik

This study aims to explore the application of Sharia economic principles in export and import trade through a qualitative approach. Sharia principles such as the prohibition of riba, gharar, and maysir, as well as fairness and transparency in transactions, are examined in the context of international trade practices. Data were obtained through in-depth interviews with traders, Sharia practitioners, and financial experts. The results show that despite challenges such as riba-free financing and currency fluctuation risks, Sharia-based solutions like salam contracts, murabahah, and wa’ad methods can help overcome these obstacles. This study highlights the potential of Sharia economics in fostering more ethical and sustainable international trade. With the growing global interest in ethical trade, Sharia principles have the potential to play a significant role in the future of international commerce.

A friend indeed to friends in need? China's trade regime and Covid-19 vaccine diplomacy

Employing newly available data on Chinese Covid-19 vaccine deliveries for a cross-section of 157 countries, we examine if China's vaccine diplomacy is driven by altruistic, enlightened self-interested motives or by purely strategic motives. According to the enlightened self-interested logic, China's vaccine supply would coincide with helping countries dependent on China for trade, i.e. its trading friends, while the strategic logic would entail providing vaccines to countries important commercially to China. In other words, the gravity of the Covid situation would be leveraged by China for strategic gain. Utilizing the logit estimator on probability of receiving vaccines from China and Tobit estimator on vaccine purchases and donations, we find that developing countries that are important to China's trade, and thereby, China's own commercial interests were less likely to get vaccines compared with countries that are more dependent on China. Furthermore, we find that countries more dependent on China are also likely to receive vaccine donations rather than purchases, suggesting that vaccine diplomacy was unlikely to be for commercial and strategic gain. Our results taken together signify that vaccine deliveries by China were not manipulated by trade interests in Beijing. The results suggest instead that China supplied vaccines to countries needing them and with whom Chinese goodwill reflects a more normal course of diplomacy—to service friends in need.

The history of the Porto Palermo Castle and the significance of its Greek inscription

The castle in Porto Palermo is an important historical site with a Greek inscription, which is of great cultural significance for the region and the whole world, testifying to the ancient history and connection with different cultures and eras. The aim of this study is to investigate the significance of this inscription in the context of the history of the castle in Porto Palermo. Throughout the study, various theoretical methods of understanding were employed, including analysis, synthesis, specification, abstraction, and generalization. The research revealed that Porto Palermo, formerly known as the ancient Epirot city of Panormi, maintained its significance as a fortress throughout the Middle Ages, serving trade interests. By the end of the 18th century, the region came under the governance of Governor Ali Tepelene. It was determined that the Porto Palermo Fortress, constructed in 1803, situated on a peninsula, features a triangular shape, towering walls, bastions, and marble slabs inscribed with Greek text, emphasizing the historical importance of the castle and past events. It is described that in the Paschalëk region under the Ottoman Empire's rule, where the fortress stood, Greek became the official language at Ali Pasha's court, fostering unity among different ethnic groups despite linguistic differences. Remarkably, during Ali Pasha's era, Albanians had yet to acquire national status. It is described that on the white marble plaque, there is a relief inscription in Greek script, which elaborately describes the historical aspects of the castle, the greatness of Ali Tepelene, his significance as a historical figure for Albania and Greece, and his recognition as an unparalleled military leader. This study is important for historians whose subject is Albania under Ottoman rule, as it is possible to deepen and broaden general historical knowledge by studying such elements of culture and architecture.

Interrelations between logistics, trade, and law in the Incoterms® context

This study uses a comprehensive bibliometric analysis to examine the relationships between the International Commercial Terms (Incoterms®), logistics, and legal issues in the context of international trade. By examining a dataset of 290 documents published from 1973 to 2023 in various academic databases such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, among others, the research aims to identify trends, key issues, and potential future directions in this interdisciplinary field. The analysis reveals a significant increase in publications since 2010, with a focus on topics such as legal and contractual issues, supply chain management, risk mitigation, and the evolution of Incoterms® rules. Co-occurrence analysis emphasizes six distinct clusters, ranging from international trade dynamics and transaction costs to regulatory frameworks and risk management. The abstract content analysis further highlights the interconnectedness of legal, logistical and implementation issues. The study also identifies the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Korea as the most important countries contributing to the field. It is concluded that Incoterms® and its multidisciplinary essence generates a greater interest in the international trade, not only because of its incidence in diverse fields of management; but also, because these rules are updated to regulate better the business transactions. The findings provide valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners, and show the importance of considering the multifaceted nature of Incoterms® research and its impact on global trade practices.

China's Belt and Road (BRI) Policy for Trade Interests in Indonesia

In promoting international trade within Indonesia, the government relies on Law Number 7 of 2014 concerning Trade. This legislation serves as a foundational framework for facilitating trade activities and addressing related issues. As part of efforts to bolster infrastructure development amidst financial constraints, Indonesia has turned to initiatives such as the Chinese Silk Road, or Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This strategic partnership aims to enhance Indonesia's infrastructure capabilities, particularly in light of budgetary limitations that have hindered optimal development. However, the implementation of BRI projects has sparked concerns and varying interpretations, particularly regarding the potential risks of falling into a "debt trap" or succumbing to "debt diplomacy" with China. This research employs a normative juridical approach, utilizing statutory analysis and conceptual frameworks to explore these complexities. A notable case is the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed rail project, slated for operation by August 18, 2023, which exemplifies BRI's application in Indonesia. Addressing legal uncertainties and ensuring robust dispute resolution mechanisms are crucial for mitigating risks associated with BRI policies. It is imperative for Indonesia to proactively safeguard against adverse impacts while harnessing the benefits of international partnerships for sustainable development.

Research On the Influencing Factors of Pulp Import Trade in China

Paper industry is an important basic industry of the national economy, is recognized as "never exhausted" industry. In the 21st century, with the development of social economy, China has become the world's paper products consumer power. Since 2003, China's pulp imports ranked first in the world, and the gradually expanding trade deficit will not only have an impact on China's pulp industry, but also is not conducive to the sustainable development of import trade. Based on the production and consumption gap in China's pulp market, this paper analyzes the demand, scale and structure of pulp import trade, and then empirically analyzes the influencing factors of China's pulp import trade, and finally puts forward the suggestions for safeguarding the safety and interests of China's pulp import trade according to the research results.

Silk Road in the aftermath of Arab conquest: Trade routes traversing Azerbaijan

The article summarizes the outcomes of the clash between Khazar Turks and Muslim Arabs in wars for the South Caucasus. More than hundred years of permanent military struggle stabilized the border along Great Caucasus Range and inevitably resulted in a search for partnership options to resume mutually advantageous long-distance trade on Silk Roads. Located on the northern littoral lands of the Caspian the Khazar khaganate occupied important space on the juncture of nomadic Eurasian steppes and lands populated by various northern peoples, Finno-Ugrian and Slavic tribes. Starting from the end of VIII century Scandinavian merchants and warriors emerged in the region claiming for their share in international trade by swords and loads of commercial goods. The article describes the system of trade communications and control established by Khazar khaganate involving various nations to Silk Road trade, as well as analyses magisterial trade routes of the time of Arab-Khazar partnership in trade. Tracking of trade flows and description of trade structure and commodities allow to conclude that magisterial trade routes went traversing the territories of Arran (modern Azerbaijan republic) and the province of Azerbaijan in the north of contemporary Iran. Con­sequently, the gradual economic interconnection, human mobility, rise of local production to serve the interests of long-distance trade and to provide local commodities demanded in the markets of Silk Road geography, generated a start of gradual economic and cultural conve­rgence between two regions of international trade transit of the time considered herein in the publication.

Русско-персидские школы как элемент реализации политики «мягкой силы» Российской империи в Северной Персии в конце XIX – начале XX в.

Introduction. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed an intensified Russia–UK confrontation in Persia, which was paralleled by penetrations of other great powers (France, Germany, USA) into the Near and Middle East. Under those conditions, Russia’s traditional economic methods of influence in Persia became insufficient. Goals. The study seeks to examine the phenomenon of Russian educational institutions in Northern Persia as another way of pursuing own national political goals in the designated country. The work aims at confirming — with evidence from archival documents — the activities of Russian-Persian schools during the specified period were to shape a positive image of Russia in Persian society. Materials and methods. The most important sources characterizing the process of opening Russian-Persian schools in Northern Persia (their goals and objectives, training agenda, certain results) are documents of both central authorities and diplomatic, economic and military institutions of the Russian Empire to Persia discovered at the Russian State Historical Archive. Analytical and generalization methods — with comparative into historiographic and archival materials — have proved most instrumental therein. Results. The article identifies some prerequisites for the emergence of Russian-Persian schools in Northern Persia, determines the validity of their activities in this particular region of the country, clearly outlines the context of Russia’s competition with other governments in this matter to conclude as follows: the Russian government was perfectly aware of the need to open such schools that would disseminate the Russian language and Russia-related ideas among Persia’s population; graduates of those educational institutions would serve an important element in pursuing Russia’s interests both in trade, economy, and politics; despite various difficulties — primarily financial ones — the schools were popular enough among ethnic Persians both in Tehran and in other cities of Northern Persia.

Identifying East Java Trade Interest Through Paradiplomacy Initiatives - Analysis on Actors, Processes and Goals of Diplomacy

This research explores the paradiplomacy activities of the East Java Government's Department of Industry and Trade in improving international trade relations. Through initiatives such as business matching, trade fairs, and foreign trade missions, the government collaborates with trade attachés, ITPCs, and foreign trade representatives to promote Indonesian exports and attract foreign investment. By achieving strong trade performance, East Java has succeeded in attracting investment, increasing export value, and actively contributing to Indonesia's international trade. This study emphasizes the important role of local governments in advancing international trade for regional development and national interests. Through programs such as business matching, foreign trade missions, international exhibitions and market brief webinars. The East Java government uses paradiplomacy to strengthen international trade relations. This research underlines the role of subnational actors in increasing economic growth and Indonesia's foreign trade balance.

Dampak Penjajahan Belanda terhadap Budaya Maritim Indonesia dan Transformasi Identitas Nasional

This study investigates the dynamics of change in Indonesian maritime culture through an analysis of the role of Dutch colonization in the transformation of national identity. Drawing on qualitative research methods using secondary data, the study examines three key areas: factors contributing to Dutch colonization, the impact of Dutch colonial policies on traditional maritime practices and social structures, and the contribution of Dutch colonization to Indonesian national identity formation and its contemporary legacy. The research's findings show that trade interests, military conquests, and cultural exchanges were the driving forces behind Dutch colonization, which had a significant impact on Indonesian maritime culture. Dutch colonial policies such as the cultivation system and cultural assimilation efforts disrupted traditional maritime practices and social structures, leading to socio-economic disparities and cultural hybridization. However, Dutch colonization also fostered a sense of resistance and solidarity among Indonesians, contributing to the formation of a unified national identity. In conclusion, the study underscores the multifaceted nature of Dutch influence on Indonesian maritime culture and national identity, highlighting the enduring legacy of colonialism in contemporary Indonesian society.

Vietnam's Foreign Trade in the second half of the XIX century and Russian Foreign Trade Interests

The article is devoted to the problems of the development of Vietnam's foreign trade relations during the second half of the XIX century. The analysis of the main foreign trade partners of Vietnam, the range of export and import, supply channels, volumes of foreign trade turnover, prices is presented. Special attention is paid to the policy of the European powers on the development of Vietnam's foreign trade relations. The main approaches of the Vietnamese authorities and traders to the organization of foreign trade relations with neighboring and European countries are noted. The characteristics of the main centers of trade in Vietnam, the peculiarities of the organization of trade in export and import goods, as well as the transportation of goods by land, sea and river routes are given. The views and approaches of the Russian authorities and entrepreneurs to the development of foreign trade relations of the Russian Empire with Vietnam are revealed. In particular, information is provided on the entry of Russian ships into the ports of Vietnam, as well as on the supply channels of Vietnamese goods to the Russian market. The article is based mainly on pre-revolutionary sources in Russian, French, English, Spanish and Vietnamese.

Peran Pemerintah Dalam Mengatur Tataniaga Garam: Dominansi Political Will atau Economic Interest? Sebuah Tinjauan Actor-Network Theory

Conflicting interests among parties involved in the salt commodity trade create challenges. This study employs qualitative methods to investigate the interactions between human and non-human actors. The primary data used in this study was collected through in-depth interviews with relevant parties. Additionally, the triangulation method utilizes secondary data from statistical sources such as the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), related Ministries, and regulations issued by related Ministries. The results indicate that the government's efforts to regulate salt trading have primarily focused on regulations and policies related to production, distribution, and imports. However, the government has not been extensively involved in regulating market players, which include salt farmers, landowners, middlemen or trade intermediaries, consumers (including the salt processing industry and salt user industries), and salt importers. According to the perspective of actor-network theory, the government plays a significant role in organizing the interaction of actors in the salt trade. However, the existence of competing interest in the salt trade illustrates that the actors involved have systematically gathered in a network based on their economic interests.

Industrial meat in Canada, growth promoters and the struggle over international food standards

This article focuses on differing national regulations and standards regarding how meat for human consumption is produced and what is permissible in that production process. Attempts to harmonize these regulations at the global level to facilitate international trade have proven to be challenging. Such harmonization of regulations is especially important to countries exporting meat, such as Canada. The conflict at the global level reflects a range of differing trade interests and values about what meat is and how it should be produced. One area of disagreement is over the extent to which methods of growth promotion in animals using technology, particularly drugs, is acceptable and safe in terms of human consumption. Canada has taken the position that they are acceptable and safe. Using two case studies of regulations related to the most recent set of beta agonist drugs, ractopamine and zilpatrol, fed to livestock to promote growth, I examine the underlying sources of these conflicts and the extent to which they reflect the interests of various actors and the forms of power they may employ to try to shape global standards at the Codex Alimentarius and the view of what is acceptable meat.

Eastern Middle Sweden, Finland and beyond in the Late Vendel and Early Viking periods

The Scandinavian interest in the Eurasian fur trade started in the early 8th century. Contacts between the Baltic Finns and the Permian groups in the Volga-Kama-Vjatka river region was the impetus for these contacts. The trail is seen in distinct Nevolino belt fittings, chain holders with twin horse heads and glass beads emanating from the East. Scandinavian fur traders established close interaction with the Baltic Finns in what is today Finland and probably Northern Estonia increased from AD 700. Scandinavian glass beads and swords were in use in South-Western Finland in the early 8th c. Finnish A III pottery emerged in Eastern Middle Sweden already in the late 7th c., both as imports proper but also as local products made by Finnish women. In this early phase of interaction personal contacts obviously played a major role. After c. AD 860 these connections changed. The Baltic Finns expressed their cultural identity in a more exposed way. Scandinavian traders turned their attention to the expanding market based on Birka and the Rus’. From c. AD 860 territorial claims in the East were accentuated, leading to the later, bigger Rus’.

REVISITING THE PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY WITH SHIFT IN ECONOMIC AND TRADING INTERESTS: A GEOPOLITICAL SCENARIO

Pakistan, a country in the South Asian region, is located at the pivot of global trading routes. However, it has remained a security state with threat perception constantly driving its foreign policy. Multiple causes can be associated with the security-driven course of foreign policy and numerous consequences can be derived from such a course of foreign policy. The main aim of this explanatory study is to revisit the foreign policy of Pakistan to shift its economic and trade interests from security state to welfare state. The dynamics of international relations are changing from security-led alliances to economic interdependence. China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) provides Pakistan with a significant opportunity to realize its geo-economic and geopolitical strength and revenue potential. Through a foreign policy driven by economics and trade interests to neighboring countries and the regions Pakistan’s not only become a welfare state but also a Great Power. In a nutshell, Pakistan has the potential to become another Germany which evolved from a security state to a welfare state.

Trade Competitiveness and Sustainability Policies of Malaysian Palm Oil in the European Union: Strategic Responses by Stakeholders Agencies

The Malaysian palm oil industry is a significant contributor towards national development and economic growth. However, the industry has been facing rising tension to ensure sustainable development, as global demand for palm oil continue to grow in the coming years. The necessity for producing and trading sustainably produced palm oil is amplified with the European Union’s stringent requirement for importing responsibly sourced commodities into its market, with the aim to achieve climateneutral by 2050. The palm oil industry is also inundated with anti-palm oil campaigns and agendas, which emphasize allegations of unsustainable agricultural practices as large-scale plantations damage the natural ecosystem in producing countries. Collectively, these challenges could pose a formidable impact on the trade of palm oil between Malaysia and the European Union. Therefore, the article seeks to examine the strategic responses undertaken by Malaysian stakeholder agencies to address the regulations pertaining to sustainable production of palm oil. Using a qualitative approach, a total of ten sessions of in-depth interviews were held with expert informants in stakeholder agencies, both in Malaysia and the European Union. Among the key findings were the formulation and implementation of the National Agricommodity Policy, deployment of various missions to the European Union, implementation of Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification as the national sustainability scheme, dissemination of accurate information on sustainable and certified palm oil, and continuous engagement through bilateral and multilateral platforms. Based on the findings, this study suggests that inclusive and transparent engagement must be conducted continuously. Constantly held dialogue sessions will help to promote better understanding and fruitful collaboration among stakeholder agencies in Malaysia and the European Union to balance environmental concerns with trade interests.

EUROPEAN POLICY VECTOR M. THATCHER, T. MAY, L. TRUSS: EUROSCEPTICISM, BREXIT, DISTANCING

The article is devoted to the European course of Prime Ministers M. Thatcher, T. May and L. Truss, based on the analysis of a wide range of sources and literature, the British policy regarding Euro integration in the period 1979-1990, and 2016-2019 is examined. and 2022. The work identifies the main stages and main directions of each of the three ladies - heads of government of the United Kingdom in the formation and implementation of the British strategy in a united Europe. We examined the reasons, goals, features and factors of London’s political course regarding the Brussels model of deepening and expanding cooperation from the European Economic Community to the European Union. It is shown that, firstly, the Thatcher government sought to use the Common Market as a trade and economic bloc, membership in which could contribute to both the economic growth of its country and the restoration of Britain’s global role in Europe and in the world. This task was solved by Thatcher through sharp confrontation, defending British interests, and receiving benefits and preferences from participation in the Community. Secondly, after the decision of the referendum on leaving the EU, T. May led a complex and contradictory negotiation process to develop conditions with Brussels, the British Parliament and the Conservative Party, which found itself in crisis due to disagreements on Brexit, which led to T. May’s resignation. Thirdly, the course of the L. Truss cabinet, in a situation of economic crisis, was focused on protecting British interests in trade and the fight against illegal migration but did not lead to noticeable results.