Intercultural Friendship Research Articles

Intercultural Friendship Formation Through the Lens of Cosmopolitan Agency

This article explores a group of international students' experiences on intercultural friendship formation in one British university in the UK through the lens of cosmopolitan agency (Kudo, 2023), which is an ecological perspective of meaningful interactions between international and home students. Under the context that internationalisation continues to be on the agenda of higher education in the UK, this article examines how international students form and develop friendships among themselves and with home students within constraints mainly on power and privilege. Semi-structured interviews with 22 international students were carried out: Nigeria, Cameroon, China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, as well as four British home students. Thematic analysis was used to explore their experiences in greater depth. The result indicated that the participating students demonstrated dynamic and discursive engagement with the four states of cosmopolitan agency, exhibiting specific manifestations of the agency relating to linguistic abilities, socioeconomic status, gender and religion.

Navigating intercultural friendships in English as a lingua franca contexts: Taiwanese exchange students in Europe

ABSTRACT This study investigates Asian exchange students’ friendship development in European countries where English functions as a lingua franca. It offers an in-depth analysis of the experiences of three Taiwanese university students who exhibited varying degrees of success in friendship formation during their study exchanges there: one was successful, another was not, and the third experienced moderate success. Data were collected through pre-, during-, and post-sojourn interviews, supplemented by online correspondence between interviews. Analyzing the data using Coleman’s concentric circles model of study abroad social networks and Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and capital, this study delineates the differing trajectories of the students’ friendship development and identifies the factors contributing to these diverse outcomes. The findings underscore the importance of possessing personal dispositions that resonate with those of peers, and also effectively utilising linguistic and cultural resources, for fostering intercultural friendships. These insights have implications for educational institutions involved in sending and hosting exchange students.

I wish that I could have friends: The Intercultural Friendship Experience of Omani Students at US Universities

The domain of intercultural friendships between international and host national students represents a pivotal aspect of international higher education and intercultural communication. In response to the evident research gap within this realm, we conducted a phenomenological inquiry to explore how eight Omani students establish friendships with US host students and the factors that might either facilitate or impede these intercultural friendships. Through our interviews, we discerned four key themes: Adjustment (involving social integration and seeking part-time jobs), Acceptance (embracing new cultural norms and utilizing social media), English proficiency (being proficient in the language and displaying friendliness), and Similarity (finding common ground in country of origin or shared interests). Our investigation identified participants falling into distinct categories: some anticipated forming friendships with both local and international students, while others realized that lack of commonality, either in their home country or shared interests, limited their interaction and socialization with host students. Additionally, some expressed that nurturing friendships demands significant time and effort. Our research yields insightful conclusions on methods to enhance intercultural friendships, including the promotion of meaningful interactions between host and international students.

The Chain of Cultural Disdain: Demystifying the Patterns of Intercultural Interactions on University Campuses in China

Extant research has explored practices and challenges for developing intercultural interactions on campus, but there is limited work on how cultural disdain has affected the development of intercultural interaction between domestic and international students. Drawing on interviews with 25 international students and 14 Chinese students in two Chinese universities, this study reveals that China's social history of intercultural encounters and internationalisation, together with people's individual intercultural experiences have fuelled Chinese students’ perceptions of the superiority of English language and Anglo-Saxon culture. While Chinese students prioritise communication with peers who are English native speakers, they tend to develop deeper intercultural friendships with students from non-Anglo-Saxon countries. This study uses the theory of cultural disdain to interpret the complex dynamics of intercultural interaction on campuses. It argues that Chinese universities need to increase cultural diversity and foster equality between different cultural groups in order to promote fruitful intercultural interactions for all students.

Intercultural Friendships with International Students in China: Examining the Role of Intergroup Contact, Intercultural Communication Competence, Host Country Nationals' Attitudes, and Perceived Intergroup Threats.

International students studying and living in a foreign context often complain about difficulties establishing friendships with host nationals. This study investigates host country nationals' (HCNs) willingness to develop intercultural friendships with international students who are sojourning in China by exploring the effects of face-to-face and online intergroup contact, HCNs' attitudes, intercultural communication competence (ICC), and perceived intergroup threats. Survey data from 469 HCNs indicate that (a) face-to-face and online contact are indirectly and positively related to their willingness to form intercultural friendships, (b) face-to-face contact can moderate the relationships of online contact with HCNs' intergroup attitudes and perceived intergroup threats, and (c) both ICC and intergroup attitudes can positively predict friendship formation whereas perceived intergroup threats act as a negative predictor. The implications of our findings for future research and practice are presented.

Establishing ties or strengthening friendships? Students' use of online social networks in intercultural friendship development

PurposeThis study was conducted to achieve the following objectives: (1) determine the differences and reasons for using outgroup OSNs by gender, age and student groups (Mainland and Hong Kong [HK] students); (2) uncover the impact of online social networks (OSNs) on the development of Mainland–HK friendships and (3) determine the roles of different OSNs (social networking sites [SNSs] and instant messaging platforms [IMPs]) in the development of intercultural friendships in the real world.Design/methodology/approachTo explore how OSNs facilitate (or inhibit) intercultural interactions, 198 students completed a questionnaire and 24 students participated in follow-up semi-structured interviews examining the role of OSNs in intercultural friendship development.FindingsResults revealed that demographic and motivational preferences for using outgroup-OSNs differed among students. Both IMPs and SNSs helped students maintain friendships using little effort, whereas it tended to strengthen their existing social networks, rather than helping to start new friendships. IMPs helped develop a sense of “presence awareness”, strengthening pre-existing friendships and solidifying offline connections. SNSs also assisted students in exploring their shared interests while revealing their values and cultural differences.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors’ findings offered empirical evidence on social exchange theory and anxiety-uncertainty management theory regarding the perceived benefit of OSNs on students' friendship development.Practical implicationsThe study sheds light on the differences between Mainland Chinese and HK students, including participants' perceptions of different friendship stages.Originality/valueThis study is interested in the roles of different SNSs and IMPs in intercultural friendship development, especially their strengths and weaknesses as perceived by students. Also, the authors are curious about how students select and use IMPs and SNSs differently according to their individual preferences and needs. To the authors’ knowledge, the dynamic link between online communication and intercultural friendship development has not been thoroughly examined in the field of intercultural communication.

The Influence of Communication Applications on the Formation and Sustainability of Intercultural Friendships

The use of new social media is common across the world regardless of gender, age group, race, and ethnicity. It plays a significant role in fostering the interconnectedness and development of intercultural relationships as it is not constrained by geographical barriers and is able to promote instant communication between groups or individuals. Communication applications (e.g., WhatsApp) are crucial in enhancing intimacy among individuals residing in different regions. In reflection of the university context, domestic students usually maintain contact with the exchange or international students through digital platforms as they might not have many opportunities for face-to-face interactions upon the completion of the sojourn periods. Therefore, there is discussion on whether social networks and communication applications could help to form and maintain intercultural friendships, and how the relationships might change throughout different stages from the short term to the long run. With the support of prior empirical research, this literature review paper will discuss how communication applications could promote the formation and sustainability of intercultural friendships among college peers in the light of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the functional model of friendship networks, Social Exchange Theory, and the Contact Hypothesis. It is found that communication applications are significant in forming intercultural relationships as it serves as a way of virtual connection which satisfies the love and belonging needs of Maslow’s Hierarchy and communication with host nationals give better functions on academic and professional aspirations. Yet, the sustainability of relationships depends more on how people weigh the rewards and costs, and the way they utilize the devices to maintain contact over time, hence resulting in the net worth and outcome of a relationship.

EXPLORING DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF INTERCULTURAL FRIENDSHIP AMONG EFL LEARNERS

Intercultural communication or Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) is the different condition of society that used symbol systems and rules for communication and interaction with other cultures and languages. This research explored the stages of the intercultural friendship of English Foreign Language (EFL) students in Indonesia who joined the International Community Service. Nine students in the same events participated in collecting the data of the questionnaire and interview based on the three familiar theories: trial, enmeshment, and renegotiation. Then the results showed that the students had prepared information about the place of events and learned the new cultures and habits of the different societies. The other one, the students avoided sensitive issues such as ethnicity, religion, and race to accept the contradiction among the students and society to understand one another to evaluate the contradiction to be a positive value based on the three theories of intercultural friendship. Lastly, their challenges were between them and society, and the students and their friends in a small group. Diversification of purpose and goal of their project made them difficult to implement such as internet connection and public fasilities. Besides, the village situation was poorer than other communities were, and required some facilities to assist them in their everyday operations. In accordance with the results, keeping good communication and relationship would be easier for students or institutions for the next event. The program was continued for the other participants to make the successful goals.

Omani international students' social connection and friendship at a New Zealand university

This is a qualitative study that explored the experiences of friendship formation of Omani international students at a university in New Zealand. Semi-structured interviews were employed to collect data from 12 Omani participants and data were analysed using thematic analysis. Utilising Bochner et al.’s (1977) Functional Model, the study found that Omani students were generally satisfied with how they were developing friendships with co-national and international students but revealed dissatisfaction concerning forming friendships with New Zealand students. The perceptions of Omani students revealed six factors that influenced their formation of intercultural friendships: (1) willingness to establish intercultural friendships, (2) frequent communication and social interaction, (3) English language proficiency, (4) capability to engage with host nationals, (5) cultural differences, and (6) personality traits. The data suggest that host-national contact is lacking and that international students prefer to contact co-national and multinational friends, which indicates that highly supportive co-national and international social ties significantly predominate. Higher-education providers in New Zealand and receiving countries addressing one cohort of international students will find these findings particularly useful.

International experiences and the development of intercultural sensitivity among university students

International cultural immersion experiences are deemed one of the most effective ways to prepare multicultural and global citizens. The purpose of the study was to determine: (1) first-year and final-year university students’ levels of Intercultural Sensitivity (henceforth IS); (2) if there was a relationship between IS and experiences of intercultural contact; and (3) the variables that might predict the development of IS. A longitudinal method and a correlational-predictive design was used. The sample comprised 1645 (52.5% women and 47.5% men) undergraduate students from 8 public universities and one private university in Andalusia (Spain) with a mean age of 23.29 (SD = 4.99). The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) was used to measure IS, and the Intercultural Experiences Inventory (IEI) was administered to explore students' intercultural experiences. Findings highlighted that there is little change in the IDI scores among first-year and final-year students, and most students were found to be in the intermediate stages of intercultural development (the minimization stage according to Bennett’s model, characterized by the widespread belief that everyone is quite similar). The lack of development found in the students’ IS could have something to do with the lack of opportunity to reflect and think about cultural differences. Positive correlations were found between IS and mobility experiences and intercultural friendships, and negative correlations were found with the number of intercultural interactions and language knowledge. Having mobility experiences, being female, and having friends from other cultures were predictive variables of IS. Finally, the educational implications are discussed.

International experiences and the development of intercultural sensitivity among university students

International cultural immersion experiences are deemed one of the most effective ways to prepare multicultural and global citizens. The purpose of the study was to determine: (1) first-year and final-year university students’ levels of Intercultural Sensitivity (henceforth IS); (2) if there was a relationship between IS and experiences of intercultural contact; and (3) the variables that might predict the development of IS. A longitudinal method and a correlational-predictive design was used. The sample comprised 1645 (52.5% women and 47.5% men) undergraduate students from 8 public universities and one private university in Andalusia (Spain) with a mean age of 23.29 (SD = 4.99). The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) was used to measure IS, and the Intercultural Experiences Inventory (IEI) was administered to explore students' intercultural experiences. Findings highlighted that there is little change in the IDI scores among first-year and final-year students, and most students were found to be in the intermediate stages of intercultural development (the minimization stage according to Bennett’s model, characterized by the widespread belief that everyone is quite similar). The lack of development found in the students’ IS could have something to do with the lack of opportunity to reflect and think about cultural differences. Positive correlations were found between IS and mobility experiences and intercultural friendships, and negative correlations were found with the number of intercultural interactions and language knowledge. Having mobility experiences, being female, and having friends from other cultures were predictive variables of IS. Finally, the educational implications are discussed.

Impact of plurilingualism and previous intercultural experience on undergraduates’ intercultural sensitivity at the start of university studies

ABSTRACT This study investigates first-year undergraduates when starting their studies in a highly internationalised public university settled in a multicultural and multilingual European city. It focuses on to what extent individual differences as regards plurilingualism and previous intercultural experience are related to a higher or lower degree of Intercultural Sensitivity (IS), in the five dimensions of this construct (Chen and Starosta 2000). 881 students from 15 Bachelor’s degrees answered two questionnaires covering background profile and Chen and Starosta’s Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (2000). Both descriptive and inferential analyses were performed. Participants from and in such a context showed high IS at the start of university. However, the analysis yielded differences between the IS Scale dimensions: from highest to lowest means, Respect for Cultural differences, Interaction Enjoyment, Interaction Engagement, Interaction Attentiveness, and Interaction Confidence. Gender, individual plurilingualism, family plurilingualism, and intercultural friendships emerged as the profile variables most correlated with higher IS; birthplace and place of schooling, the least. Results raise awareness on what profile of undergraduates may be more in need of educational interventions not just aiming at their individual Intercultural Sensitivity but also making truly intercultural Higher Education possible.

Formation and Benefits of Intercultural Friendships: The Role of Communication

This qualitative study provides novel insights into exploring factors that influence intercultural friendship formation and friendship benefits, focusing on the role of communication. A research gap has been addressed by focusing on Muslim women who wear the hijab and exploring what factors had influenced their friendship formation with people from culturally different backgrounds and what impact the friendship had on the self. Findings suggested that cultural, linguistic and religious similarity was deemed as not important for friendship formation. Instead, similar values, self-disclosure and respectful communication assisted intercultural friendship formation. Friendship barriers included cultural misconceptions and behavioral uncertainty. Clear evidence emerged that these intercultural friendships led to positive attitudinal changes of the individuals within and beyond the friendship. This included increased cultural understanding, acceptance and self-reflection. It was revealed that cultural misconceptions (and levels of Islamophobia) were eliminated and ethnocentrism was reduced.

Everybody Does It: The Pragmatics and Perceptions of International Chinese Graduate Students and their American Peers Regarding Gossip

Integrating natural observation, interviews, and quantitative analysis, we used a mixed design to compare the socio-linguistic judgments of international Chinese students at a private University on the East Coast of the United States (US) with those of their native English-speaking peers regarding a critical incident involving gossip. Ninety-two participants evaluated alternative sociolinguistic strategies offered in addressing the incident on semantic differential scales. Judgments by each group regarding four alternative responses were surveyed and compared. Twenty participants, ten from each group, participated in semi-structured interviews. Themes were developed through a recursive process: interpretations were validated by a bilingual bicultural expert. Several distinctions in judgments emerged. The most preferred alternative to dealing with a group gossiping about a friend for Americans was to say honestly that it made them uncomfortable while Chinese participants preferred requesting a change in topic. Such contrasts were found to be representative of underlying sociocultural values for each group. Intercultural pragmatic distinctions such as these could lead to pragmatic failure and have the potential to interfere with the development of intercultural friendship among the members of the two groups. Implications for pedagogy and developing cross-cultural insight are offered.

Working toward connectedness: local and international students’ perspectives on intercultural communication and friendship-forming1

ABSTRACT A lack of connectedness between local and international students in the higher education context is a perennial concern that negatively impacts the student experience. This study draws on two surveys, focused on intercultural communication and friendship-forming, to examine the preconceptions and actual experiences of local and international students at the beginning and end ­of their first term of study. It was found that, while intercultural friendships were important to both groups at the outset, they construed these relationships in distinct ways. The local group reported positive experiences and claimed responsibility for those successes, whilst the international group was dismayed at the difficulties they had forming intercultural friendships and felt that the onus for this fell largely on them. Central to the disconnect was a lack of communication skills, which both groups reported did not improve as much as they had anticipated. Strategies for helping students improve their communication skills, foster intercultural friendships and work toward greater connectedness are then given.

Cultural Diversity Stimulates Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Two Large-Scale Natural Experiments

Entrepreneurship is the engine of economic advancement and innovation. Leveraging two large-scale, pre-registered natural experiments, we provide the first causal evidence that the cultural diversity of individuals’ social environments stimulates them to become entrepreneurs. In Study 1, 3,632 MBA students from 98 countries were assigned to 540 learning groups that naturally varied in cultural diversity (e.g., in some groups all students were from the same country, whereas in other groups students were from different countries). Multilevel analyses revealed that the cultural diversity of an individual’s learning group positively predicted whether he/she became an entrepreneur upon graduation. Importantly, this positive effect existed for both American and foreign MBA students. Moreover, among individuals who became entrepreneurs, the cultural diversity of their learning groups positively predicted the novelty of their start-ups. Study 2 replicated these effects in another MBA program, in which 2,516 students from 90 countries were assigned to 461 learning groups that naturally varied in cultural diversity. The positive effect of group cultural diversity on entrepreneurial entry was (a) mediated by the number of intercultural friendships an individual had within his/her learning group and (b) moderated by the personality trait of openness to experience, such that the positive effect of group cultural diversity was stronger for more (vs. less) open individuals. By demonstrating the entrepreneurial benefits of cultural diversity, this research offers broad and tangible implications for cultural diversity, creativity, entrepreneurship, and immigration policies.

A Qualitative Study of Intercultural Friendship through New Social Media

Applying Casmir’s Third Culture Model (TCM) of intercultural communication (Casmir 1993, 1999), the current study examines the ongoing interaction between two international participants mediated by one social medium: WeChat. It describes the dialogic communication patterns between the participants that enabled them collaboratively to construct a shared and mutually beneficial third culture that brought about a productive intercultural friendship. It demonstrates ways WeChat helped transform their interactions and facilitated their friendship development.

Birds of a feather end up flocking together when studying abroad. Can a university bridge the cultural differences that challenge friendships between Pacific Island students and New Zealand students?

Intercultural friendship formation is a key challenge for international students studying abroad. In an increasingly globalised world, where people regularly engage with others from different cultures, meaningful intercultural friendships are important. However, culture can pose a considerable challenge that hinders the formation of friendships between people of different cultures. This paper explores challenges and insights into developing intercultural friendships between international Pacific Island students studying in Aotearoa New Zealand and domestic New Zealand Palagi11Palagi is a term referring to people of European descent. It is a Samoan term, but it has been adopted by other Pacific Islands. students. Similar to other studies, the findings in this study highlight the key challenges connected to cultural differences. These findings are surprising as New Zealand Palagi students would have gone to primary and secondary schools with Pacific Island students and should have had some contact and interactions with them and be more accustomed to cultural differences. Unique to this study is that these international Pacific Island students recognised that universities are in a prime position to champion and promote systemic interventions to assist both international and domestic students to engage with each other in order to promote cultural understanding. Overcoming intercultural friendship development challenges involves creating meaningful intercultural spaces and campus ‘friendship’ events to increase intercultural interactions, raise domestic students’ cross-cultural awareness, and encourage reciprocal intercultural learning. Such activities are likely to enhance the overall well-being of all students and improve the internationalisation of universities with increasingly diverse student cohorts.

Understanding Social Integration of Chinese Students in the Netherlands: The Role of Friendships

ABSTRACT This study explores the lived experiences of 28 Chinese international students to enhance understanding of their social integration in the Dutch higher education institutions, with a focus on intercultural friendships. The findings indicate that establishing friendships with non-Chinese students is challenging due to several reasons: language comprehension/production, cultural distance, interests in different social activities, lack of initiatives from Dutch students, (perceived) prejudice and discrimination, and dependence on the Chinese community. The findings underscore the need for institutions to provide more support for Chinese students regarding linguistic competences and cultural understanding, while highlighting the importance of promoting an inclusive academic environment.

Exploring transcultural competence in the internationalised university classroom: the role of intercultural friendships and plurilingualism in the construction of a transcultural identity

ABSTRACT This mixed-methods study explores whether undergraduates in a multilingual, multicultural university – and more specifically in a multi-dimensionally internationalised classroom – manifest transcultural competence when starting university studies. The article precisely focuses on the role of intercultural friendships and personal and family plurilingualism in the construction of an identity that reveals such competence, namely, a transcultural identity. Data include profile and transcultural competence questionnaires as well as interviews and classroom observations. Descriptive statistics and regression analyses show that first-year undergraduates in such a university display transcultural competence at the start of their studies, but more so students with intercultural friendships, personal or family plurilingualism, or belonging to a multi-dimensionally internationalised classroom. Qualitative data document that this educational context may trigger affordances for diversified plurilingual intercultural interactions in which transcultural competence may manifest in the form of a complex transcultural ‘twenty-first-century youth identity’ that is linked to sensitivities and attitudes valuing heritage as well as a transnational way of life.