Language Classroom Interaction Research Articles

Rethinking peer interaction in language classrooms: students and L1 peers as mediators and experts in higher education

ABSTRACT In today’s multilingual and multicultural societies, different languages and cultural orientations converge for complex purposes. This study examines how Spanish language students and their native peers (L1 peer = L1P) experiment with dynamic and culturally embedded language uses in higher education. The data included conversation recordings between students (N = 17) and L1Ps (N = 2). A qualitative conversation analysis of the student-L1P interaction revealed multiple and shifting learner-expert positions that led to reciprocal intercultural mediation. Both students and L1Ps mediated diverse linguistic and cultural knowledge to each other by relying on a rich array of multimodal mediational means. However, the L1Ps’ role as peers on the students’ level was crucial in fostering communication in the target language beyond native and non-native speaker positions.

Teachers’ Eyebrow and Head Movements and Repeats as Other-Initiations of Repair in Second-Language Classrooms

This study investigates how teachers use language and bodily-visual practices, and particularly facial gestures, to initiate repair of problems in students’ utterances in Chinese as a Second Language classroom interactions. We identify two multimodal practices used by teachers for other-initiation of repair. First, teachers use a “visual repair initiator” of eyebrow raises and head tilts to address apparent language errors in students’ utterances without specifying the trouble-source. Second, teachers use full or partial repeats with marked prosody and eyebrow raises to display problems with accepting a student’s response. We argue that the two practices are deployed to deal with different types of problems in students’ utterances.

Analyzing L2 Classroom Dynamics: A Conversation Analysis Perspective

This paper explores the reflexive relationship between pedagogy and interaction in second language (L2) classrooms, employing Seedhouse’s (2004) model and Conversation Analysis (CA) methodology. The analysis covers three contextual dimensions: form-and-accuracy, meaning-and-fluency, and task-oriented contexts. The study reveals the dynamic interplay between pedagogical focus and interactional organization, showcasing how participants negotiate linguistic forms, repair sequences, and engage in turn-taking to accomplish pedagogical goals. Despite critiques emphasizing the emic perspective’s limitations, the paper underscores CA’s contribution to understanding language use in teaching, offering pedagogical insights for language educators.

Akan Traditional Games: An Indispensable Tool in Ghanaian Language Classroom in Respect to Classroom Interaction

This investigation examined the potential of incorporating Akan traditional games as an effective tool for enhancing classroom interaction in Ghanaian language classrooms. The study recognizes the importance of creating an engaging and interactive learning environment to facilitate language acquisition and cultural appreciation. Drawing upon previous research on the benefits of game-based learning, the paper investigates the specific role of Akan traditional games in promoting communication, collaboration, and cultural understanding among students. The investigation employs a single-methods research design, qualitative data collection techniques. A sample of (100) participants from Berekum Municipal, Mampong Municipal and Sekondi – Takoradi Municipal were selected, to represent a diverse range of socio-economic backgrounds and language abilities as population sampling. Observation and interviews were conducted to gather qualitative data, allowing deeper understanding of the factors supporting the investigation.
 The investigation revealed that, traditional games facilitate communication skills, preservation of Cultural Heritage, teamwork, enhanced classroom interaction. The study identified the benefits of incorporating traditional games in terms of learner motivation, engagement, language proficiency and ability to promote participation and excellent engagement. The theory that buttressed the investigation was Vygotsky (1930) sociocultural theory. This theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in children's cognitive development.

Classroom Questioning:Pre-Service EFL Teachers’ Questioning and Modification Strategies

One of the most important keys to create an interactive language classroom is initiation of interaction by the teacher. In order to foster interaction in foreign language classrooms, “questioning” is known as one of the effective ways. However, asking lots of questions inforeign language classrooms does not guarantee stimulation of interaction for language teachers. Thus, the quality of the questioning strategies employed by foreign language teachers has of significance.The present study takes exploratory-descriptive inquiry into research issue under investigation and sets out to search teacher questions posed in EFL classrooms in Turkey. The participants of the study are 10 senior pre-service EFL teachers.The data is gathered by means ofobservation, field-notes and audio-recordings of classroom observations held in secondary school classrooms. The results reveal that Turkishpre-serviceEFL teachers mostly use display questions and use modification strategies like rephrasing, simplification, repetition, decomposition, and probing.However, they have challenges when sequencing questions. They tend to ask many things at a time or prefer very general questions. They fail when giving prompts, clues or examples andthey tend to reply to their own questions. The present studyoffers some implications for teacher education programs to increase the quality of pre-service teacher training.
 

Pragmatic modifiers in teachers’ polite requests in EFL classroom interaction in Manggarai, Indonesia

This research mainly explores pragmatic modifiers in shaping teachers’ polite requests in English Foreign Language classroom interaction (henceforth: EFL). The research was designed qualitatively, employing non-participant observation and field-note methods. Audio-video recording and note-taking were used to obtain the data on the male and female teachers’ utterances during classroom interaction. The key apparatuses are a smartphone Vivo of Y21 and a digital voice recorder of 32 GB to capture natural-occurring data. The data were analysed through three interactive procedures of qualitative data analysis; data condensation, display, and conclusion drawing. The data interpretation was primarily drawn on the pragmatic theory of politeness, FTAs, and pragmatic modifiers. Part of the data was analysed from language and gender perspectives. The findings yielded that the male and female teachers applied internal and external pragmatic modifiers to enact polite requests in classroom interaction settings. The internal pragmatic modifiers cover downtoner, politeness marker, appreciative opening, and hedged performative opening. The external pragmatic modifiers include vocative, disarmer, and propitiator. There is a slight difference between male and female teachers in realising those types of pragmatic modifiers. It was partly related to the features of women’s language. However, such empirical evidence could not be directly generated for language and gender. The findings have implications for further investigations to probe the issue in depth.

Mapping Conversation Analysis Studies in the Arab World: Applications and Implications

This scoping review investigates the applications and implications of the conversation analysis approach in the Arab world. Specifically, it examines the implementation of conversation analysis by Arab linguists in both foreign language classrooms and social interaction settings. The review identifies gaps in the relevant literature to guide future research. This scoping review is underpinned by the five-stage framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley. The findings reveal that, compared to non-Arab contexts, the literature on this topic in the Arab world is scarce, but there is a growing interest among Arab linguists. The majority of studies reviewed were conducted in college-level English classes, and there is a dearth of studies in school contexts. The studies were categorized based on themes, including the implementation of conversation analysis, context, educational level, type of methodology, and the journal. The findings from interaction in foreign language classrooms were promising, as they provided insights into how learning opportunities might be developed to facilitate teachers’ professional training. Findings related to social interaction, although limited in number, revealed important features of human interaction, such as topic shifting, ending conversations, and the functions of religious markers. The paper concludes with a discussion of the challenges in implementing conversation analysis and calls for future research on this promising approach in the Arab world.

Scaffolding children’s participation during teacher–child interaction in second language classrooms

ABSTRACT This study investigates the nature of teacher–child interaction and teacher scaffolding in Finnish second language (L2) classrooms. Although previous research on classroom interaction has highlighted the importance of scaffolding in language learning, much less is known about the importance of scaffolding for younger children's L2 learning. Utilising a sociocultural approach, this study aims to fill this gap. The data were collected from seven pre-primary/early primary L2 classrooms, with four teachers and 205 children through video recording (56 h) and observational field notes. The interaction analysis focused on the communicative functions of teacher–child interaction, teacher and student initiations, and teachers’ scaffolding children's participation during whole-class and small-group sessions. The results show how teacher–child interaction during small-group sessions supported the children’s active participation in L2 interaction and learning. The results also suggest how changing from teacher-centred modes of classroom interaction to child-centred and playful interaction is challenging and requires strong teacher professionalism.

Exploring Classroom Interaction through Conversation Analysis: from communicative to interactional competences in language teaching

This paper will provide an introduction to the rationale behind the use of Conversation Analysis (CA) (Sacks et al., 1974) to explore language classroom interaction for readers new to the field. CA is the systematic analysis of talk produced in everyday human interaction, that is, talk-in-interaction (Hutchby & Wooffitt, 2008). Since its origins in 1960s, the field has expanded tremendously: from telephone calls to video recordings in Multimodal CA (Mondada, 2018) and has made great impact in the way we explore classroom discourse from an interactional perspective. This paper will first present an overview of the historical development of language instruction comparing both cognitive and socio-interactionist perspectives. It will then introduce CA to readers and will explain its main analytic concepts before exemplifying the kinds of practices that become visible through this approach, such as the temporality of gestural productions and the practices teachers deploy to promote participation. The paper will end with more current perspectives by introducing two teacher training frameworks which have emerged from the application of CA to classroom discourse.

Multimodal Differentiation for Allophone Pupils in First Language French Classroom

Language classroom interactions can be characterized as multimodal, since teachers may resort to a variety of resources provided by their body or by their immediate space in order to convey meaning, manage activities and assess pupils’ performances. Furthermore, teachers’ multimodal practices constitute an essential component for the differentiating process aiming to resolve especially linguistic problems some pupils may face. In this perspective, this study examines the implementation of multimodal differentiation by the same teacher in the case of allophone pupils following first language French courses alongside with native pupils of 3rd grade within the context of inclusion classroom in a middle school in France. More specifically, it was aimed to analyze a teacher’s adaptation of kinesic and proxemic behaviors within the differentiation process, such as the use of hand gestures, gaze and facial expressions as bodily resources but also the control of interpersonal distance with respect to allophone pupils. For this purpose, a micro-ethnographic research strategy was applied, and data was collected through video-recorded sessions of the teacher in inclusion classroom. Our qualitative analysis of the data revealed a differentiated use of prosodic, kinesic and proxemic elements by the teacher, such as the reduction of speech rate, the accentuation of words, the production of deictic and iconic hand gestures as well as facial expressions, the orientation of gaze, the forward leaning posture, the isolated seating arrangement, and the reduction of interpersonal distance. All these elements either follow or overlap each other, especially within the framework of teacher instructions during classroom activities.

Effects of Interaction in Online Language Classroom: A Case Study in Najran University

This research investigated the effects of interaction in online language classroom. A mixed method research design using questionnaire and interview was employed to elicit quantitative data from teachers (N=30) and students (N=55). In addition, a semi-structured interview was conducted with faculty members (N=10) to collect the qualitative responses on the effects of interaction in online language classroom. The data was analyzed using SPSS software (23.0). The results of the questionnaire revealed that students’ interaction in online language classroom had positive effects on learning. However, the qualitative data contradicted the questionnaire results. Based on the contrary findings, the researchers offered the possible reasons for the difference of opinions. Solutions, based on the participants’ qualitative responses, are offered to address the interactions’ issues as highlighted by the respondents during the semi-structured interview. As e-learning platforms are being used worldwide in academia, this study will have universal implications.

CODE SWITCHING USED BY THE STUDENTS IN EFL CLASSROOM INTERACTION

This research aims at finding out the types of code-switching used by the students in the English as a foreign language classroom interaction. The research employed descriptive qualitative research design. The subjects were the students of English language education program. All of them used Papuan Malay language in their daily life but in class they used Indonesian language as mother tongue and English language as target language. The researcher findings that there are five types of code-switching that used by the students in EFL classroom interaction. Those Inter – sentential, Intra – sentential, and tag switching. For each type, the switch frequently used was as a clause, then as a word, and the last was as a sentence. They used them to clarify what they said because they tended to repeat or tried to translate the words again, and another reason was switching the words into the daily language was one of the ways to use to continue speaking. The impact of code-switching on TEFL was extremely beneficial since it may be utilized as a method or tactic in teaching English content, pushing students to talk, evaluating problems, and encouraging students to keep speaking in EFL classroom.

Rethinking social interaction in English first additional language classrooms during the post Covid-19 era

Social interaction among peers and teachers in English First Additional Language (EFAL) classrooms is a more significant predictor of communicative competence, which is the goal of any language program. During the Covid-19, there was a decline in social interaction among learners due to the sudden change from onsite to remote teaching and learning. This paper aimed to explore the effects of lack of social interaction in EFAL classrooms and how it can be enhanced during the 'New Normal'. This study was underpinned by Long's (1981) Interaction Hypothesis Theory, which emphasizes social interaction as an essential component of language learning. This study adopted a qualitative approach embedded in an interpretive paradigm. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were utilized to gather data from 32 conveniently selected participants. Data were analyzed through content analysis. The findings of this paper indicated that the effects of lack of social interaction were; the inability to solicit information from learners, lack of direct contact, and lack of immediate feedback, which were caused by the COVID-19 social distancing measures. This negatively affected the quality of education. Furthermore, the lack of interactive social activities in EFAL classrooms threatens the acquisition of language proficiency skills, which are key to academic literacy. Therefore, the authors recommend that language teachers receive training on how language lessons should be planned during blended learning to engage learners in interactive social activities like role-playing, storytelling, debates, and group discussions.

Learning Through Correction: Oral Corrective Feedback in Online EFL Interactions

Feedback has been vital and essential in all educational settings and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom interaction draws no distinction. It contributes to students' language learning and achievement. It, when involves learners during classroom interactions, becomes oral corrective feedback and has been viewed as a dynamic practice for EFL teachers to correct their learners’ mistakes on the spot. This study investigated teachers' oral corrective feedback practices in an online EFL classroom interactions context. Furthermore, it correlated teachers' responses with the type of oral corrective feedback, gender, and years of experience. To achieve the study objectives, the descriptive-correlational method was used. A questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were applied to a sample of 61 EFL teachers. The results of the questionnaire revealed that EFL teachers consistently practiced oral corrective feedback in online classroom interactions. Also, no significant differences were shown in the study sample's responses based on the type of oral corrective feedback, implicit or explicit, gender, and years of teaching experience. Considering the study findings, some implications and recommendations are suggested.

Wait-time in Material and Classroom Context Modes

This study aims to investigate wait-time, more specifically student reaction wait-time, in high school English as a foreign language classrooms with specific regard to two classroom micro-context modes (the classroom context mode and material mode). The data was collected via audio-recordings of classroom interaction in its natural context. The audio-recordings were analyzed using the principles of Conversation Analysis. The analysis of the data demonstrated that the effectiveness of student reaction wait-time is highly related to the current pedagogical goal; if the purpose is to increase learners’ involvement in classroom discourse or if it requires analytical thinking, an extended wait-time of three to five seconds is likely to enhance the learning opportunity. However, as a social process, opportunities for learning are likely to be missed if the purpose is to monitor understanding or display answers which are explicitly given in the material that is being used. In this sense, this study has implications for studies on wait-time, foreign language classroom interaction, teachers’ interactional competence, and foreign language learning contexts in general.

Eliciting student participation in video-mediated EFL classroom interactions: focus on teacher response-pursuit practices

As active student participation in classroom interaction is widely accepted as a central component of foreign language learning, prompting student contributions becomes consequential in L2 educational settings including synchronous remote classrooms. When there is a lack of response following teacher questions, teachers resort to a variety of practices to elicit a response from students. Teachers’ response-pursuit moves are vital both to ensure interactional and pedagogical progressivity and secure student engagement. This study deals with the absence of student response to teacher questions in a largely unexplored interactional setting, namely large group, remote, synchronous, video-mediated L2 classrooms. Using multimodal conversation analysis for the examination of screen-recorded higher education English as a foreign language classroom interactions, this single case analysis documents interactional resources that an EFL teacher employs for pursuing a response and eliciting student participation. We show that in the focal context, when the teacher’s question is left unanswered and no one bids for the turn in the response slot, the teacher draws on diverse interactional practices as well as a range of screen-based multimodal resources to ensure the progressivity of the ongoing activity. Revealing how these resources maximize the interactional space, this study contributes to the understanding of the interactional organization of teacher response-pursuits and provides insights into video-mediated L2 classroom discourse.

Form and Function of Teacher’s Questioning Technique in English Foreign Language Classroom Interactions

English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers most frequently deal with question types in their interactions with students. However, questioning is not only concerned with type but also with form and function. Therefore, this qualitative study aimed to examine the types, forms, and functions of the questions altogether raised by EFL teachers as they interacted with students. The researcher observed and recorded two college-level EFL teachers. Using the conversation analysis tenets, the data were transcribed and examined. The results have demonstrated that the teacher questions used were insufficient for the questioning activity. The form is related to the question type. Additionally, the teachers’ questions had diagnostic, educational, and motivating purposes. Therefore, it is advantageous for teachers to ask questions during class discussions if they have a comprehensive understanding of type, shape, and function.

Türkiyede İngilizce Öğretiminde Sınıf İçi Etkileşime Dair Sistematik İnceleme

While there are studies of international scope on L2 classroom interaction, there is no review as of today within the Turkish context. The envisioned change in the national educational policy until 2023 with a special focus on foreign language education involves contextual specification and localization of language teaching, and thus creates a special need to take a closer look at what is happening inside the classroom on a country basis. For this reason, the present study looks at English language classroom interaction research in the Turkish context to find out the recent trends and developments in the area in terms of methodological choices and contexts of investigation. To do so, document review is adapted as a data collection technique. Search terms were selected as ‘classroom interaction’, ‘classroom interaction in Turkey’, ‘L2 classroom interaction’, ‘L2 classroom interaction in Turkey’, and ‘classroom interactional competence’. Studies were found using three databases and an index. After carefully applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 16 studies were chosen for the review and analyzed in terms of methodologies, research contexts, and findings. Results showed that in terms of methodology, studies were inclined to employ Conversation Analysis and they were conducted predominantly in a university setting with adolescent participants along with various subject areas. In line with these findings, the present review tries to shed light on the past and present state of English language classroom interaction research in Turkey and attempts to propose future directions as well.

Ear cupping in EFL classroom interaction: an embodied means of pursuing students’ response

Abstract This paper describes one of the embodied resources language teachers use to pursue a response from students: placing one hand behind the ear in an Ear Cupping (EC) gesture. The data analyzed are taken from over 20 h of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom interaction video-recorded at a Japanese university. The paper explores how teachers use EC to pursue a response in cases when a Second-Pair Part (SPP) contribution from the student(s) is sequentially and temporally delayed, missing or inapposite. The findings suggest that the use of the EC gesture to pursue a response demonstrates the teachers’ orientation toward a normative understanding that a question posed within the classroom should be answered, even when a specific respondent has not been nominated. The analysis therefore reveals that the gesture constitutes an embodied means of monitoring intersubjectivity and increasing engagement in large groups of language learners.

A Case Study of Chinese Students Learning Thai as a Foreign Language: Flanders Interaction Analysis Category System

Interaction in foreign language classrooms has been regarded as a key factor in enhancing learning outcomes (Allwright, 1984; Ginting, 2017; Hanum, 2016). This study examined interactions in a specific university classroom context in Thailand where 28 Chinese students were learning Thai as a foreign language with a Thai teacher. It employed a mix-method design. Quantitative data were gathered based on a modified Flanders’ model (Flanders Interaction Analysis Category System or FIACS), and the qualitative data were gathered from classroom observations. The analysis of 90-minute video records and field notes from the observations of three classes reveal the domination of teacher’s talk (77.59%), and the minimal students’ talk (6.16%). Besides, silence time occupies 16.25%. Out of the total of 22 categories of interaction, no student talk can be categorized as an initiation of talk, and no teacher talk can be categorized as procedural lectures and assigning homework. Characteristics of the interaction varied according to the quantity and categories of talk. Transcription of verbatim from the videos reveals details of the interaction. Findings suggest that quantity, category, and characteristics of talk are interrelated and must all be improved together to increase the quality of interaction to affect student learning outcomes.