Intentional Dissemination Research Articles

Bioterrorism in the Twenty-First Century: Exploring the Threat of Potential use of Biological Weapons by Anti-State Agents

Bioterrorism involves the intentional dissemination of biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, or fungi, with the aim of causing widespread fear, illness, and death among targeted populations. Anti-state agents, including terrorist organizations or individuals with extremist ideologies, may employ bioterrorism as a means to achieve their political, ideological, or religious objectives. The study explores the motivation behind the potential use of bioterrorism by anti-state agents, the threat of biological warfare, and the state readiness in the case of a biological attack. It examines the history of biological warfare, the factors that make biological warfare attractive to terrorist organizations including potential for mass casualties, psychological factors behind the attacks, access of biological agents, and the issues and challenges associated with detection, responses, and prevention of a biological attack by anti-state agents. The research used securitization theory to understand the phenomenon behind biological warfare. The study identified that despite the small scale of biological attacks in the past by anti-state agents, the threat has increased in the recent times as the technological advances and access to these agents make the people vulnerable to such attacks by the non-state actors . The study also concluded that strengthening global surveillance systems, enhancing public health infrastructure, and promoting information sharing among states and international emergency response services are vital in preventing and mitigating the impact of bioterrorist attacks.

Teacher‐composed cases of practice as and for dissemination, reflection and data

AbstractThe need to make evidence and implications of educational research widely available has prompted a burgeoning interest in knowledge mobilisation, which is a set of strategies supporting the active and intentional dissemination of research knowledge. For this, it is important to consider who might be the intended audience and end‐users of this knowledge, as this impacts decisions throughout the research process. Researcher–teacher collaborations are effective contexts for knowledge‐building and sharing, where both partners have different but equally valuable roles and contributions to make to the conduct, analysis and dissemination of research. This paper illustrates the value and uses of teacher‐composed written and video cases of colleague coaching. The cases were generated as part of the Zooming project, a seven‐school, 3‐year research–practice partnership focused on developing teachers' data literacy and capacity to coach colleagues in this. To craft the cases, the teachers reflected on their coaching practices and relationships and identified what would be most useful for new coaches to know. The cases proved to be engaging tools for research dissemination, especially to a professional audience. In addition, the case writing challenged teachers to reflect on and analyse their coaching actions and the assumptions they brought to collegial coaching. The cases as data also provided researchers with a deeper level of insights into what teachers viewed as salient when coaching colleagues in data use. Teacher case composition offers a useful approach to knowledge co‐production and a pathway to research dissemination by and for teachers and researchers.

Critical analysis of the draft Law of Ukraine No. 9223 dated 04/19/2023 regarding criminal liability for actions, provided for by Art. 114-3 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine

The article is devoted to a scientific and practical analysis of the provisions of the draft Law of Ukraine No. 9223 dated 04.19.2023, which proposes the introduction of criminal liability for the actions provided for in Art. 114-3 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, namely, - the creation, acquisition, use or sale of accounts containing known false information about the user in information (automated), electronic communication networks, with the help of which unreliable information is distributed (including on behalf of other persons, whose involvement in the disclosure of information has not been confirmed) or interference is carried out in the activities of individuals and legal entities,м if such actions are committed to the detriment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and inviolability, defense capability, national, state, economic or informational security of Ukraine, etc. The author analyzed the disposition of the specified article and identified a number of shortcomings that cannot be eliminated by the use of legislative techniques and construction.
 The most fundamental remarks are the following: the inconsistency of the title of the article with its content and the list of types of actions that form the corresponding forms of the objective side of the composition of the criminal offense; the focus of the authors of the draft law has been shifted from criminal actions, which consist in spreading (posting) knowingly false information using a fake account, to actions that, in a narrow sense, precede such spreading, for example, creating a fake account; inconsistency of the Section of the Special Part of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, in which it is proposed to place Art. 114-3 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, the actual generic object of this criminal offense; the presence in the disposition of the article of constructive categories that do not correspond to the content of the actions being performed.
 Taking into account the identified shortcomings, the author proposed to conceptually change approaches to the definition of actions that must be criminalized, defining them as "intentional dissemination of false socially significant information known to the subject." In addition, a number of proposals were made regarding mandatory elements that should be included in the new norm, which is proposed to be included in Chapter IX of the Special Part of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Criminal offenses against public safety).

An Assessment of Faculty Perceptions of Wellness Needs and Strategies to Optimize Engagement With Wellness Resources in Academic Medicine.

Faculty at academic medical institutions are at increased risk for burnout. This study aimed to assess faculty perceptions of wellness needs and identify strategies to optimize engagement with individualized wellness resources. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 37 faculty members in one US academic medical center. Participants identified significant barriers to achieving emotional health and wellness goals. Areas where participants identified needing the most support included interpersonal relationships, accountability for wellness goals, career support, financial resources, and mentorship. Most participants were unaware of all wellness resources available at their institution. Participants recommended regular marketing and emphasizing confidentiality of employer-sponsored programs. They also provided feedback on specific dissemination and marketing methods. This research underscores the need for wellness resources for faculty and the importance of intentional dissemination of these resources to optimize uptake.

Determinants of Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Implementation in Transgender Populations: A Qualitative Scoping Review.

We conducted a scoping review of contextual factors impeding uptake and adherence to pre-exposure prophylaxis in transgender communities as an in-depth analysis of the transgender population within a previously published systematic review. Using a machine learning screening process, title and abstract screening, and full-text review, the initial systematic review identified 353 articles for analysis. These articles were peer-reviewed, implementation-related studies of PrEP in the U.S. published after 2000. Twenty-two articles were identified in this search as transgender related. An additional eleven articles were identified through citations of these twenty-two articles, resulting in thirty-three articles in the current analysis. These thirty-three articles were qualitatively coded in NVivo using adapted constructs from the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research as individual codes. Codes were thematically assessed. We point to barriers of implementing PrEP, including lack of intentional dissemination efforts and patience assistance, structural factors, including sex work, racism, and access to gender affirming health care, and lack of provider training. Finally, over 60% of articles lumped cisgender men who have sex with men with trans women. Such articles included sub-samples of transgender individuals that were not representative. We point to areas of growth for the field in this regard.

Microbial forensics: A potential tool for investigation and response to bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is the intentional dissemination of bio-warfare agents in a population to cause illness or death. Microbial forensics plays an essential role in the investigation of bio-terror attacks. This is a new field of forensic science that is still in the early stages of growth and faces huge theoretical and ethical obstacles. There is a profound concern with current biotechnological developments that bacteria and viruses may be genetically engineered to modify them as biological weapons. Bioterrorism, like other nuclear weapons, has the potential to cause humanitarian disasters. This paper summarizes different detection methods of bio-warfare agents besides highlighting the various phases of bioterror attacks through the investigatory lens of microbial forensics.

Points to consider in seeking biosafety approval for research, testing, and environmental release of experimental genetically modified biocontrol products during research and development

Novel genetically modified biological control products (referred to as “GM biocontrol products”) are being considered to address a range of complex problems in public health, conservation, and agriculture, including preventing the transmission of vector-borne parasitic and viral diseases as well as the spread of invasive plant and animal species. These interventions involve release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) into the environment, sometimes with intentional dissemination of the modification within the local population of the targeted species, which presents new challenges and opportunities for regulatory review and decision-making. Practices developed for GMOs, primarily applied to date for GM crops may need to be adapted to accommodate different types of organisms, such as insects, and different technologies, such as gene drive. Developers of new GM biocontrol products would benefit from an early understanding of safety data and information that are likely to be required within the regulatory dossier for regulatory evaluation and decision making. Here a generalizable tool drawing from existing GM crop dossier requirements, forms, and relevant experience is proposed to assist researchers and developers organize and plan their research and trialing. This tool requires considering specifics of each investigational product, their intended use, and country specific requirements at various phases of potential product development, from laboratory research through contained field testing and experimental release into the environment. This may also be helpful to risk assessors and regulators in supporting their systematic and rigorous evaluation of new biocontrol products.

Criminal Influence and Problems of its Definition in the Criminal Code of Ukraine

The article researches the term “criminal influence” which was introduced to the Criminal Code of Ukraine (hereinafter – the CC of Ukraine) by the Law of Ukraine “On amendments to the Criminal Code of Ukraine regarding liability for crimes committed by criminal community”, and its correlation with the institute of complicity in a crime, in particular with objective elements of accomplices in a crime, as well as with illegal influence. The author concludes that there may be one narrow and two broad types of understanding of this term. Moreover, criminal influence may be considered not only from the criminal legal but also from the criminological point of view. Criminal influence is a part of the broader term of illegal influence. However, in contrast to other types of illegal influence, criminal influence, due to its social danger, is limited by the state specifically by the means of criminal law.The term of criminal influence introduced to the Ukrainian criminal legislation has serious gaps, so that it is extremely poor and practically inapplicable. Moreover, not only this term defined in the note to Art. 255 of the CC of Ukraine, but also corpus delicti provided for in Art. 255-1 of the CC of Ukraine (intentional establishment or dissemination of the criminal influence in society) should be substantially revised. The usage of general formulations and abstract concepts in the disposition of Art. 255-1 of the CC of Ukraine, as well as non-exhaustive lists of objective and subjective elements in the definition of the term of criminal influence violates the principle of legal certainty as a part of a broader rule of law principle. Bringing individuals to the criminal liability for committing crimes related to the criminal influence (intentional establishment or dissemination of the criminal influence in society and request for its application) or conviction of individuals for these crimes with a high probability will cause substantial violations of fundamental principles of criminal law and human rights.

It's a conspiracy: Covid-19 conspiracies link to psychopathy, Machiavellianism and collective narcissism

A proliferation of conspiracy theories has emerged during the Covid-19 health pandemic. The present study investigated individual susceptibility to conspiracy beliefs and the mediating role of Covid related conspiracy beliefs on links between personality and intentional dissemination of Covid-19 conspiracies and willingness to obtain a Covid-19 vaccine. Specifically, we focused on trait psychopathy, Machiavellianism and collective narcissism, as these traits have previously been linked to heightened conspiracy mentalities. We recruited 406 UK participants to take part in an online survey investigating personality and Covid-19 information. Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy positively predicted general and Covid specific conspiracy beliefs, whereas collective narcissism positively predicted Covid specific conspiracy beliefs only. Covid-19 conspiracy beliefs mediated the negative relationships between all traits and willingness to obtain a future vaccine. We discuss possible implications of these findings and provide direction for future research.

Identification of Putative “Multifunctional Drug” Against Anthrax Toxins via Integrative Computational Approach

Background: The intentional dissemination of the “anthrax letter” led the researchers to increase their efforts towards the development of medical countermeasures against anthrax bioterrorism. A virulent strain of Bacillus anthracis secretes deadly three protein exotoxin (protective antigen, lethal factor and edema factor) that is the causative agent of anthrax and considered as serious biological weapons. Objective: Due to limited existing therapeutics options, there is still an insecure situation to combat anthrax. This prompted us to design a multifunctional inhibitor instead of a traditional one that competes simultaneously with the Protective Antigen (PA), Lethal Factor (LF) and Edema Factor (EF) for their binding sites. Methods: We integrated a pharmacophore modeling approach with the virtual screening and molecular docking analysis in the context of unique structural characteristics of deadly anthrax toxins. Results: Initially, we screened 56,000 natural compounds against designed pharmacophore consensus that returned 351 hits. Out of these initial screening hits, only 100 compounds passed out through Lipinski filter that comprised of 12 chemically relevant clusters. By exclusion of duplicate and based on their fit score in each cluster, 15 unique compounds were selected for detailed study. Putative multifunctional compounds subjected to deep structural analysis in the milieu of anthrax toxins binding pockets to gauge critical structural crunch. Conclusion: Our integrative approach provides a novel therapeutic window to develop a small molecular inhibitor that simultaneously targets three components of anthrax deadly toxin at the molecular level to elicit the desired biological process.

Outcomes and Intentionality of Action Planning in Photovoice: A Literature Review.

Participatory action research methods have been utilized to engage community members in community-driven health promotion projects addressing issues across various socioecological levels. Photovoice is one such participatory action research method that allows participants to use photography to document their experiences and dialogue to eventually influence change and reach policy makers. However, it is unclear how photovoice projects demonstrate intentional action planning and its impact on community-level outcomes. The purpose of this literature review is to understand (1) how action plans are developed, initialized and implemented in the community and (2) describe community-wide changes that occurred in photovoice projects with an action planning process. We searched scholarly databases for peer-reviewed articles that used photovoice with action planning and community-level outcomes. As a result, 19 articles were included in this review. Using the socioecological model to assess the literature, we found that action planning varied at different levels of influence. The intentionality of action planning was described through the use of specific action steps, as well as intentional dissemination to stakeholders, evaluation, and sustainability primarily at the community and organization levels. Our results suggest that the most successful photovoice projects were those that were intentional in action planning. We provide recommendations for photovoice researchers to better incorporate action planning into their methodology and make use of photovoice as an action research tool that can provide a clear, sustainable path toward community-wide changes.

Protection of the Rights and Freedoms of Minors in the Digital Space

The problem of ensuring information security is currently urgent for the Russian Federation as well as for the whole world. The number of cyber-threats is increasing at a great speed, and they concern not only private citizens, but also organizations, the community and the state. Special attention should be paid to the information security of children and teenagers. Minors are most susceptible to negative influences on the Internet, they risk becoming victims of cyberbullying, fraud and illegal access to personal data. Common threats to the information security of minors include a constant increase in the number of sites with aggressive or illegal content, including those inciting to suicide or abuse of drugs and psychoactive substances, as well as cyber-stalking or virtual sexual harassment. The information security of minors in the digital space is a complex issue, whose successful solution requires a consolidation of legal and information resources. The article analyzes Russian and foreign experience of ensuring the information security of minors. The authors summarize research approaches to solving the problem of protecting minors on the Internet. They present a classification of the most urgent cyber-threats: software-technical (intentional dissemination of viruses and Trojan software), economic (theft and sale of credit card details, phishing-attacks, hacking of payment accounts), and content (public dissemination of any materials, including illegal ones, on the Internet). The authors also examine legal, social and technical measures of ensuring the information security of minors and suggest changes to the current legislation which regulates the information security of minors. The authors also study specific methods of solving this task and outline a number of measures aimed at protecting the rights and freedoms of minors in the digital space (thematic prevention classes for minors, development of special information protection software).

Right to be Wrong: Examining the (Im) possibilities of Regulating Fake News while Preserving the Freedom of Expression in Kenya

With the proliferation of peer-to-peer networks as a source of information, concerns on the accuracy of information shared have been raised, necessitating attempts by governments to regulate fake news. Kenya’s Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act, for instance, criminalises the intentional dissemination of false or misleading data. However, such regulation has resulted in a different set of concerns, particularly its potential to bring about undue limitation on the freedom of expression. In appraising the approach taken in Kenya of imposing liability on perpetrators, and that taken in some jurisdictions of imposing intermediary liability, the article posits that similar difficulties are faced in regulating fake news – the freedom of expression could be curtailed. This is fuelled by ambiguity in the definition of ‘fake news’. Consequently, this article seeks to find out if indeed, it is possible to regulate fake news while preserving the freedom of expression in Kenya. Further, the article delves into some of the effects the proliferation of fake news has had on the democratic process in Kenya, thereby requiring regulation. In doing so, it tackles fake news from two general conceptions: fake news as calculated disinformation campaigns by individuals for certain purposes, and fake news as an overarching culture of misinformation that enables the spread of false information. Regarding the former, it finds that legislative measures may prove sufficient. However, the latter requires a combination of non-legislative measures such as collaborative measure, awareness initiatives and fact-checking.

Фейкові новини в українському медіапросторі: технології експериментальних проектів

The article considers dissemination of experimental fake messages by research organizations through analysis of media and audience feedback. The objective of the research is to study the main techniques of fake creation on the basis of experimental fakes traced in the Ukrainian information space. The methods used in the article are the following: analysis – to study the state of media landscape as to availability of fake news; the system method – to establish the ways of fake dissemination; the systematization method – to determine fakes’ features and characteristics. The preconditions, reasons and specifics of creation and intentional dissemination of false information in the society are studied in the article. As a result of the research, the role of pilot projects related to fake dissemination as part of popularization of ideas of media literacy and media education has been identified. It is analyzed the impact of experimental fake news on the media and the general public, in particular on dissemination of messages by the users in social networks. Simultaneously the thesis that regional journalists automatically rewrite and repost the Ukrainian mass media is refuted, as we have traced their professional response to dissemination of false information. The verification of facts (fact checking) is mandatory for journalists and necessary for every consumer of information, as making the media responsible for the facts is not an indication of media literacy.

Creating an Evidence-Based Advising Program for Exams: a Student-led 10-Step Approach

Despite the significance of the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) in medical resident selection, there are few reports of evidence-based medical school advising programs for the USMLE and similar exams. Here, we describe a reproducible 10-step evidence-based, student-led process for developing an exam advising program, centered around a local needs assessment, literature review, multi-year study behaviors survey linked to meaningful score outcomes, and intentional dissemination of data to students. Student leadership promoted improved response rates, dissemination of findings, and student-centered programming. This 10-step approach is generalizable to development of advising programs for any standardized medical examination.

Avaliação de uma medida de gestão do conhecimento em equipas numa unidade militarizada portuguesa: estudo psicométrico da escala GCE

If, on the one hand, we have an abundance of literature with information regarding organizational knowledge management (Bogosian & Stefanchin, 2013; Ocean, 2009), on the other hand, we find that it is much scarcer as regards knowledge management in work teams (Xue, Bradley & Liang, 2011), as well as what concerns their measuring instruments. The objective of the present study was to analyze the psychometric qualities of the Team Knowledge Management (TKM) scale - the onedimensionality of each of the constructs referent to the processes that constitute it - at a militarized Portuguese unit. This scale was developed by Cardoso and Peralta (2011). It was conceived in accordance with Cardoso's (2007) multidimensional model, having been inspired by different theoretical contributions - American, Japanese and European theoretical orientations - which gave rise to the Knowledge Management (KM) scale. For the purposes of this study, this instrument originally designed for use in the organizational context, was thus adapted to the team context. The team knowledge management instrument allows for the assessment of 14 knowledge management processes divided into 6 sections: knowledge creation and acquisition; attribution of meaning to knowledge; knowledge sharing and dissemination; team memory; knowledge retrieval and utilization; and knowledge management catalysts. The processes that we used in this study are related to: creation and external acquisition; creation and internal acquisition; attribution of meaning to knowledge; sharing and intentional dissemination; sharing and unintentional dissemination; internal and intentional memory; internal and tacit memory; external memory; controlled retrieval; automatic retrieval; and use of knowledge. The choice of these 11 processes (we did not include the session on knowledge management catalysts), instead of the 14 that are part of the TKM scale, was due to two fundamental reasons: (1) the fact that they are catalysts, that is, aspects/activities that can enhance the other processes and, in this way, aiming to reduce the global scale, we opted not to include such catalysts (which have, as we have just mentioned, a somewhat different nature from the others, more than mere team knowledge management processes, they are stimulators of team knowledge management processes/activities), and, (2) the fact that the TKM scale offers us the advantage of being able to use the processes that best suit us, independently, according to the type of study that we intend to carry out. The study was conducted on a sample consisting of 2158 participants, members of a militarized unit - the GNR (Guarda Nacional Republicana [National Republican Guard, a military police force]). The construct validity, namely dimensionality, was evaluated by means of confirmatory factor analysis. All of the 11 processes revealed adequate adjustment. The reliability analysis of internal consistency, estimated on the basis of Cronbach's alpha, ranged from .70 to .89. The results allow us to reach the conclusion that the TKM scale possesses adequate psychometric qualities for the evaluation of team knowledge management in Portuguese militarized units.

Classifying Infectious Disease Outbreaks to Improve Timeliness and Efficiency of Response

Following the intentional dissemination of B.anthracis through the U.S. Postal Service in 2001, use of the term "naturally occurring" to classify some infectious disease outbreaks has become more evident. However, this term is neither a scientific nor an epidemiologic classification that is helpful in describing either the source or the mode of transmission in outbreaks. In this paper, the authors provide examples of how and when the public health community has recognized potentially flawed or misleading taxonomy in the past and taken steps to improve the taxonomy's accuracy and usefulness. We also offer examples of alternative terms for classifying outbreaks since inaccurate descriptions of outbreaks could potentially lead to a flawed or incomplete set of underlying assumptions about the outbreak's causal factors. This, in turn, could lead to implementing a flawed or incomplete intervention or response strategy which could extend the duration of the outbreak, resulting in avoidable morbidity and mortality.

Scientific opinion in policymaking: the case of climate change adaptation

The urgent need for policy decisions often outpaces scientific discovery. At such times, policymakers must rely on scientific opinion. This is the case with many aspects of current climate policy, especially those involving untested but potentially necessary adaptations to reduce vulnerability to climate change. Unfortunately, scientific opinion is not currently defined, measured, or used in a standardized way, which often allows for the accidental or intentional dissemination of misinformation and the marginalization of science where science could be most beneficial. In this article, we argue that scientific opinion can be usefully measured by systematic surveys of scientists that employ standards similar to those that govern public opinion surveys, including systematic decisions about target populations, sampling frames, and sampling techniques. We demonstrate this approach with the methodology for a study of scientific opinion on a potential adaptation to climate change, the managed relocation of species. We show that survey results may be used to corroborate other types of information, refine or contradict other information, and offer novel insights into emerging issues, such as adaptations to climate change, that are currently not addressed with any other type of available information.

<i>Vibrio cholerae</i> - As Biological Weapons

Terrorism is defined as use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to indulge fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, social or religious. Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents, mainly bacteria or viruses. Use of biological weapons is attractive from the terrorists’ point of view because of low production costs, major range and easiness of transmission. The first mention of the use of primitive biological weapons date back to the 6th century. Use of plague-infested corpses as offensive means in the 14th century caused a spread of bubonic plague through the whole Europe. The biggest development of biological weapons took place in the interwar period and in the cold war era. Biological weapon trails and research were conducted by super powers such as USSR, UK, USA and Japan. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of bioterrorism occurred, which put humanity in the face of a terrifying threat. Cholera is a deadly disease that has caused a worldwide phenomenon throughout history. Its imperative weapon, the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, has allowed cholera to seize control and wipe out a huge percentage of the human population. V. cholerae’s toxins are the primary causes of cholera’s lethal symptoms. The bacterium contains toxins that help it accomplish its job of invading the human system and defeating the body’s powerful immune system. With its sibling bacterium Escherichia coli, V. cholerae has become one of the most dominant pathogens in the known world. V. cholerae’s strategies in causing the infamous deadly diarrhea have been widely studied, from the irritation of the intestinal epithelium to the stimulation of capillary leakage, as well as the internal effects of the disease such as the Peyer’s patches on the intestinal walls. Overall, the Vibrio cholera bacterium has made cholera a tough disease to overcome, and because of its deadly virulence factors, cholera has become one of the most frightening diseases a human body could ever encounter. Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped bacterium. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. V. cholerae is facultatively anaerobic and has a flagellum at one cell pole. V. cholerae was first isolated as the cause of cholera by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini in 1854, but his discovery was not widely known until Robert Koch, working independently 30 years later, publicized the knowledge and the means of fighting the disease. V. cholerae pathogenicity genes code for proteins directly or indirectly involved in the virulence of the bacteria. During infection, V. cholerae secretes cholera toxin, a protein that causes profuse, watery diarrhea. Colonization of the small intestine also requires the toxin coregulated pilus (TCP), a thin, flexible, filamentous appendage on the surface of bacterial cells.

A Mucosal Subunit Vaccine Protects against Lethal Respiratory Infection with Francisella tularensis LVS

Francisella tularensis (FT) is a highly virulent pathogen for humans and other mammals. Severe morbidity and mortality is associated with respiratory FT infection and there are concerns about intentional dissemination of this organism. Therefore, FT has been designated a category A biothreat agent and there is a growing interest in the development of a protective vaccine. In the present study, we determine the protective potential of a subunit vaccine comprised of the FT heat shock protein DnaK and surface lipoprotein Tul4 against respiratory infection with the live vaccine strain (LVS) of FT in mice. First, we establish an optimal intranasal immunization regimen in C57BL/6 mice using recombinant DnaK or Tul4 together with the adjuvant GPI-0100. The individual immunization regimens induced robust salivary IgA, and vaginal and bronchoalveolar IgA and IgG antigen-specific antibodies. Serum IgG1 and IgG2c antibody responses were also induced, indicative of a mixed type 2 and type 1 response, respectively. Next, we show that immunization with DnaK and Tul4 induces mucosal and systemic antibody responses that are comparable to that seen following immunization with each antigen alone. This immunization regimen also induced IFN-γ, IL-10 and IL-17A production by splenic CD4+ T cells in an antigen-specific manner. Importantly, over 80% of the mice immunized with DnaK and Tul4, but not with each antigen alone, were protected against a lethal respiratory challenge with FT LVS. Protection correlated with reduced bacterial burden in the lung, liver and spleen of mice. This study demonstrates the potential of DnaK and Tul4 as protective antigens and lends support to the notion of combining distinct, immunodominant antigens into an effective multivalent tularemia vaccine.