Intentional Cranial Deformation Research Articles

From the Eurasian steppe to the Lower Danube: the tradition of intentional cranial deformation during the Bronze Age

From the Eurasian steppe to the Lower Danube: the tradition of intentional cranial deformation during the Bronze Age

A 10 ka intentionally deformed human skull from Northeast Asia

AbstractThe oldest‐known undoubted cultural practices of intentional cranial deformation (ICD, also known as artificial cranial modification) appeared in the Middle East, Australia, and Northeast China in the terminal Pleistocene‐early Holocene populations. Here, we report an ICD calvarium fossil (Songhuajiang II) discovered from an underwater sand mining site near Harbin City in Northeast China. With a calibrated accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon age of 11,095–10,745 BP, the fossil calvarium is among the oldest‐known ICD records in the world. A combination of pronounced superciliary arches, salient temporal lines, and relatively round and dull supraorbital margin, together with moderately wide interorbital space, flat glabella region without infraglabellar notch, flat and small zygomatic trigon, round and inclined superior‐lateral orbital margin, and largely closed sutures, suggests that Songhuajiang II skull belonged to a middle‐aged Asian man. The man has flat frontal and occipital bone, conical posterior parietal region, and a circular depression posterior to the coronal suture, and more subdivisions and many crenulated terminal branches on the anterior branch of the middle meningeal vessels. These features are typical for the tabular deformation methodology of ICD. The discovery, together with previously known ICD records (Songhuajiang I, Qianguo Man Qingshantou 1, and Djalai‐Nor cranium), suggests that the ICD cultural practice has a long and continuous history in Northeast Asia.

A Multidisciplinary Review of the Inka Imperial Resettlement Policy and Implications for Future Investigations.

The rulers of the Inka empire conquered approximately 2 million km2 of the South American Andes in just under 100 years from 1438–1533 CE. Inside the empire, the elite conducted a systematic resettlement of the many Indigenous peoples in the Andes that had been rapidly colonised. The nature of this resettlement phenomenon is recorded within the Spanish colonial ethnohistorical record. Here we have broadly characterised the resettlement policy, despite the often incomplete and conflicting details in the descriptions. We then review research from multiple disciplines that investigate the empirical reality of the Inka resettlement policy, including stable isotope analysis, intentional cranial deformation morphology, ceramic artefact chemical analyses and genetics. Further, we discuss the benefits and limitations of each discipline for investigating the resettlement policy and emphasise their collective value in an interdisciplinary characterisation of the resettlement policy.

Earliest-known intentionally deformed human cranium from Asia

Hereditary hierarchy is one of the major features of complex societies. Without a written record, prehistoric evidence for hereditary hierarchy is rare. Intentional cranial deformation (ICD) is a ritualized and cross-generational cultural practice that embodies social identity and cultural beliefs in adults through the behavior of permanently and immutably altering infant head shape. Therefore, ICD is usually regarded as an archeological clue for the occurrence of hereditary hierarchy. With a calibrated radiocarbon age of 11,245–11,200 years BP, a fossil skull of an adult male discovered in Northeastern China is among the oldest-known ICD in the world. The fossil demonstrates the oldest application of the more sophisticated tabular deformation methodology that requires securing hard flat surfaces to the forehead and back of the skull of infants, differing from the other earliest-known records of ICD that used other processes. Along with the other earliest global occurrences of ICD, this discovery points to the early initiation of complex societies among the non-agricultural local societies in Northeastern Asia in the early Holocene. A population increase among previously more isolated terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene hunter-gatherer groups likely increased their interactions, possibly fueling the formation of the first complex societies.

The Back to Sleep Campaign, Positional Cranial Deformity, and the Foramen Magnum: New Lessons Learned from Old Pachacamac Crania

In 1992, the American Academy of Pediatrics discouraged prone sleeping positions because of its association with sudden infant death syndrome. The recommendations prompted the United States Public Health Service to begin the “Back to Sleep Campaign,” to promote the habitual practice of placing newborns to sleep in a supine or side‐lying positions. After the Back to Sleep Campaign was initiated, there was a sudden increase in the incidence of deformational plagiocephaly. Therefore, research is warranted regarding effects on the influence of extrinsic forces on the development of the cranium. This study utilized ‘traditional’ and geometric morphometric techniques to compare the foramen magnum size and shape of Peruvian crania from the Samuel George Morton Collection, largely from Pachacamac and likely to have undergone intentional cranial deformation, to those of craniofacially diverse cultures that were not reputed to practice intentional cranial deformation. The results demonstrate statistically significant differences in the sagittal dimension of the foramen magnum between groups. Likewise, geometric morphometric analysis revealed differences in foraminal shapes between groups. The results of this study suggest that extrinsic compressive forces likely alter the structure of the foramen magnum. These findings should be taken into consideration with regard to modern‐day newborn sleeping positions and positional cranial deformation.Support or Funding InformationWV Research Challenge Fund [HEPC.dsr.14.13]

Trephination and Intentional Cranial Deformations in Ancient Pre-Columbian Cultures (P04.008)

Objective: The aim of this study is to analyze trephination and intentional cranial (ICD) deformation techniques in ancient pre-Columbian cultures. Background Trephination and ICD are the oldest known surgical techniques developed by some pre-Columbian cultures. ICD is defined as the product of the dynamic distortion of the normal vectors of infantile neurocranial growth through the agency of externally applied forces. Design/Methods: An anthropological field study was performed in the Andean region of South America. Skulls from Inca, Nazca and Paracas Peruvian cultures, Tiwanaku and Cochabamba Bolivian cultures were analyzed. Results: The practice of ICD was performed by the application of either boards or bandages to the infant9s head to change the shape of the growing skull. The circular Aymara type was the most common ICD in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes. On the coast, the application of boards to the front and back of the head was the preferred deformation method. In pre-Columbian Peru, permission to shape the heads of children was an act of kindness granted by the rulers to some nobles. This practice also had the intention of altering the shape of the head in accordance with certain preconceived ideas of beauty. The earliest trephined skulls in the Americas were found in the burial caves of Paracas, Peru. Craniotomy was performed by abrasion, scraping, crosscut sawing, and drilling. Trephining was initially performed with a triangular knife-like instrument made of obsidian and fixed in a wooden handle. Later, t-shaped tumis were used. The holes outlined a large bone excavation, which was filled with a sheet of silver or gold. Bone reactions around the various trephinations suggest differing durations of long-term survival. Conclusions: The practice of ICD was common and persisted until Spanish colonial period. Success of skull trephination was frequent in spite of rudimentary methods and instruments. Disclosure: Dr. Carod has received personal compensation for activities with Allergan, Inc., Merck Sharp & Dohme Limitd, Lundbeck, Biogen Idec, Esteve, and Pfizer Inc. Dr. Vazquez Cabrera has nothing to disclose.

The effect of intentional cranial deformation on frontal sinus development and morphology

Introduction: Intentional cranial deformation (ICD) has been documented to be a world‐wide phenomenon whose practice elicits considerable shape changes to the neurocranium during the early stages of postnatal development. Since the development of the frontal sinuses begins after early childhood, the application of ICD procedures should affect morphological growth trajectories in its anatomy. This qualitative and quantitative study examines the effects of ICD on the frontal sinus development and morphology.Methods: Twenty intentionally deformed (ID) and twenty non‐deformed (ND) dry crania from distinct Bolivian and Peruvian indigenous populations were selected from the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History. The crania were scanned using a hispeed helical CT scanner. Craniofacial linear measures, along with endocranial (EC) and frontal sinus volumetric determinations were obtained using a three dimensional (3‐D) volume rendering program.Results: 3‐D reconstructed volumetric studies showed no statistical differences between the EC volume of ID and ND crania. Analysis of frontal angle showed statistically significant difference between ID and ND crania (p<0.001). Volumetric measurements of frontal sinus showed no statistically significant differences between ID and ND crania.Conclusion: ICD procedures affect more readily the extrasplanchnocranial moiety as detected by external linear measurements of adult crania. However, the development of the frontal sinus seems not to be affected by these external changes. This study emphasizes the developmental potential of the paranasal sinuses which is not affected by structural changes within the neurocranium.

NEW WORLD CRANIAL DEFORMATION PRACTICES

Throughout history, prehistoric and even some contemporary civilizations have practiced various forms of intentional and unintentional cranial deformation. Plagiocephaly can be the result of craniosynostosis, infant positioning, or other unintentional or intentional deformation. We reviewed the medical and anthropological literature and the anthropological collections of Arizona State University and the San Diego Museum of Man for evidence of cranial deformation and its possible physiological and cognitive side effects. Evidence of cranial shaping was also sought among art or stone work from representative cultures. The anthropological record and literature attest to the presence of much more severe forms of deformation than that seen as a result of contemporary infant positioning. Despite this evidence, there is no anthropological evidence as to the possible cognitive effects that such deformation may have, although some evidence is reviewed that suggests a possible physiological mechanism for the same. Because we can only view these cultures through the relics of time, any conclusions one might draw from the anthropological and historical record regarding the cognitive effects of head deformation can only be inferred through generalized observations and are tenuous. Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any evidence of negative effect on the societies that have practiced even very severe forms of intentional cranial deformation (e.g., the Olmec and Maya). On the other hand, the physical anthropology and the contemporary developmental literature suggest possible mechanisms for such an effect.

Artificial deformation of the human skull: A review

Early examples of intentional human cranial deformation predate written history. Intentional cranial deformation as an extreme has seemingly not persisted into this century. However, mild forms of this manipulation are still practiced by various groups worldwide. Accidental cranial deformation or mild forms of intentional cranial deformation may be encountered by the clinician or anatomist. We review the literature regarding intentional manipulation of the human cranium.

An Annotated History of Craniofacial Surgery and Intentional Cranial Deformation

The history of craniofacial surgery and the use of intentional cranial deformation is a long and varied one. Researching some of the earliest medical writings and reviews of early terracotta and stone figures from throughout the world clearly revealed that these two forms of treatment were widely extant. Intentional cranial deformation was used for a number of reasons including beautification, tribal identification, and social stature. The development of craniofacial surgery is a more modern practice and its historical evolution is reviewed in the context of techniques and the personalities involved.

Intentional Cranial Deformation

Of the forms of human self-mutilation that have been recorded, few have been so widespread and long lasting as intentional cranial deformation. The earliest known record of the practice is from Iraq and dates back to 45,000 BC. The custom, which was practiced in many areas of the world, continued well into this century. Although tatooing, ear piercing, and circumcision are commonly practiced in our society, cranial deformation has almost completely disappeared from contemporary cultures, with the exception of isolated groups in Africa and South America. Intentional cranial deformation is intriguing for those who study the human cranium.

Intentional cranial deformation in the preColumbian populations of ecuador

AbstractUsing 151 crania, 8 Preceramic, 86 Formative, 29 Regional Developmental, 28 Integration Period and some isolated skulls from Ecuador I can clarify some origins and diffusion of American cranial deformation. To Imbelloni's classification of Tabular erecta, Tabular obliqua, and Annular I add a new type, Cuneiform, marked by flattening of the entire occiput (not just the upper, membraneous‐derived bone) without evidence of counter pressure in front. The Cuneiform type starts in Guayas about 2000 B.C. (perhaps the earliest in America) with diffusion to coastal Peru in Chavin times. Tabular erecta, of coastal origin between Manabi province and the Guyas river basin, about 1,000 B.C., also spreads to coastal Peru. Tabular obliqua appears in Esmeraldas province probably from Mexico 2000 years ago, and diffuses south into Chile. Annular type starts early in the Southern Andes and appears late in the highlands of Ecuador.