Integrated Pest Management Research Research Articles

The invasive fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in Africa and Asia: responding to the food security challenge, with priorities for integrated pest management research

The invasive fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in Africa and Asia: responding to the food security challenge, with priorities for integrated pest management research

Caffeic Acid and Biopesticides Interactions for the Control of Storage Beetles

Infestations of stored-product pests cause significant losses of agricultural produce every year. Despite various environmental and health risks, chemical insecticides are now a ready-to-use solution for pest control. Against this background and in the context of Integrated Pest Management research, the present study focuses on the potential insecticidal effect of caffeic acid at five different concentrations (250, 500, 750, 1500 and 3000 ppm), and their combination with Cydia pomonella Granulovirus (CpGV), Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis and Beauveria bassiana strain GHA on three major insect stored-product beetle species, Tribolium confusum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) and Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Treatment efficacy was expressed as mortality in relation to exposure time and adult species number. Compared to the control, the results showed a clear dose-dependent pesticidal activity, expressed as significant adult mortality at a high-dose application, although some of the combinations of caffeic acid concentrations with the other substances acted positively (synergistically and additively) and some negatively. Based on our results, bioinsecticides can be combined with plant compounds such as caffeic acid and be integrated with other modern IPM tools in storage facilities.

Advances in cranberry insect pest management: A literature synthesis

Over the past three decades, an increasing body of entomological research has been published on integrated pest management (IPM) in cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton). However, no paper has been published that synthesizes the existing literature. This paper fills this gap by analyzing 139 peer- and editor-reviewed articles that were data driven and had direct relevance to the subject of insect pests or insect pest management of V. macrocarpon. Results show that the top three studied insect pests of cranberries have been Sparganothis fruitworm (Sparganothis sulfureana Clemens), blackheaded fireworm (Rhopobota naevana Hübner), and cranberry fruitworm (Acrobasis vaccinii Riley). The regions with the most published entomological papers on cranberry IPM research have been New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin in the United States, followed by British Columbia in Canada. Among IPM tactics, published research on chemical control, as well as on host-plant resistance, has increased likely due to recent advances on newer, reduced-risk insecticides and high-yielding cultivars; while published research focusing on behavioral control has declined likely due to the cost of these tactics. There are no consistent trends in published research on natural and biological control or cultural control. These historical research trends are important when considering regulatory changes on insecticide use, such as the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 in the United States, which resulted in the banning and restrictions of certain broad-spectrum insecticides. As more insecticides are banned or restricted and global and organic cranberry production increases, we anticipate further advances in research related to sustainable IPM tactics.

Perceptions and Management of Ventenata by Producers in the Inland Pacific Northwest

Ventenata is an annual grass that has invaded agricultural and wildland settings in the Inland Pacific Northwest, causing economic and ecological losses. We know little about producers’ perceived risks and management of ventenata. We present results of surveys in 2011 and 2014 targeting producers across affected counties in Idaho and Washington. Awareness of ventenata and costs to producers increased across that time interval. Respondents attending ventenata Extension events adopted recommended management strategies more than those who did not attend. Our study documents the importance of continued integrated pest management research in concert with stakeholder engagement and education.

A Review of the Biology, Ecology, and Management of Plum Curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

AbstractThe plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is an insect native to the Americas that is a serious pest of stone and pome fruits in the United States and Canada. Failure to effectively manage this insect may result in up to 85% damaged fruit at harvest, as well as early season fruit abortion. Conotrachelus nenuphar is oligophagous, feeding and ovipositing on many Rosaceous plants, including apple, peach, plum, cherry, quince, and pear. Additionally, C. nenuphar in limited geographic ranges utilizes alternate hosts such as highbush blueberry (Ericaceae) and Muscadine grape (Vitaceae). Despite its long history as a pest, integrated pest management (IPM) lags behind similarly damaging native fruit pests. Although significant progress has been made on the identification of attractive lures for monitoring C. nenuphar adults, development of behaviorally based management strategies, and biological control with entomopathogenic nematodes, growers continue to rely heavily on top-down chemical inputs to manage this pest. Most of the research to date comes from studies done in apples where alternative management practices for C. nenuphar have, to some extent, been adopted; however, less IPM-based information is available for other susceptible crops. In this review, we summarize the history, biology, ecology, behavior, and control of C. nenuphar and future directions for IPM research.

Building a better Psylloidea (Hemiptera) trap? A field-look at a prototype trap constructed using three-dimensional printer technology

AbstractAn insect trap constructed using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was tested in potato (Solanum tuberosum Linnaeus; Solanaceae) fields to determine whether it could substitute for the standard yellow sticky card used to monitor Bactericera cockerelli (Šulc) (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Triozidae). Sticky cards have shortcomings that prompted search for a replacement: cards are messy, require weekly replacement, are expensive to purchase, and accumulate large numbers of nontarget insects. Bactericera cockerelli on sticky cards also deteriorate enough that specimens cannot be tested reliably for the presence of vectored plant pathogens. A prototype trap constructed using 3D printing technology for monitoring Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Liviidae) was tested for monitoring B. cockerelli. The trap was designed to attract B. cockerelli visually to the trap and then funnel specimens into preservative-filled vials at the trap bottom. Prototype traps were paired against yellow sticky cards at multiple fields to compare the captures of B. cockerelli between cards and traps. The prototype trap was competitive with sticky cards early in the growing season when B. cockerelli numbers were low. We estimated that two or three prototype traps would collect as many B. cockerelli as one sticky card under these conditions. Efficacy of the prototype declined as B. cockerelli numbers increased seasonally. The prototype trap accumulated nontarget taxa that are common on sticky cards (especially Thysanoptera and Diptera), and was also found to capture taxa of possible interest in integrated pest management research, including predatory insects, parasitic Hymenoptera, and winged Aphididae (Hemiptera), suggesting that the traps could be useful outside of the purpose targeted here. We believe that 3D printing technology has substantial promise for developing monitoring tools that exploit behavioural traits of the targeted insect. Ongoing work includes the use of this technology to modify the prototype, with a focus on making it more effective at capturing psyllids and less susceptible to capture of nontarget species.

Economic impacts of integrated pest management on vegetables production in Bangladesh

Impacts of integrated pest management (IPM) were assessed for six vegetables: eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var capitata), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), and country bean (Lablab purpureus L.) in Bangladesh. Propensity score matching (PSM), inverse probability weighting (IPW), and inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) were used to assess farm level impacts of IPM. Economic surplus analysis was employed to estimate market level benefits. IPM adoption significantly reduced the number of pesticide applications and pesticide costs for eggplant, bitter gourd, and tomato. For all vegetables together, pesticide costs per hectare were Tk. 1990.42 ($24.88 USD), Tk. 2039.63 ($25.50 USD), and Tk. 2017.53 ($ 25.21 USD) less for adopters than for non-adopters based on nearest neighbor, kernel and radius matching, respectively. IPW and IPWRA also exhibited similar type of findings. The highest market level benefits were obtained for eggplant IPM research and training. IRR was also highest for eggplant IPM research (42%) followed by tomato (39%). Policy implication included measures for more extension efforts and increased investment in IPM research and development.

New approach to Integrated Pest Management research with and for horticulture. A vision from and beyond economics

The main problem addressed in this paper is the low adoption rate of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) knowledge into practice. Many IPM research leaders believe this low adoption rate is due to bottlenecks in knowledge supply. Consequently, they have asked for research, education and extension efforts that will lead to more widespread use of flexible, locally adapted and practical IPM. In our opinion, however, the bottleneck is a lack of attention for the motivations and framework conditions of the end-users. Therefore, in this paper we shift the focus from technology push to market pull. This paper is based on interviews with Dutch greenhouse growers about the adoption of a new cultivation concept and on export data of tomatoes and apples from Eurostat's Comext database. The two data sources were combined to get understanding of the interactions between entrepreneur types, economic drivers and adoption of new IPM methods. The motivations of the greenhouse growers were captured in mind maps. The export data were analysed for differences between market segments. The main motivations of the growers for adopting innovations such as IPM were getting access to high market segments and achieving better crop growth and lower crop losses. Thus, the challenge for IPM research is integrating tasteful cultivars and product types, advanced agronomy, adequate crop management, attractive packaging and low pesticide residue levels in an inclusive product concept (e.g. residue-free snack tomatoes in a transparent plastic cup). This can be achieved by capturing innovative production strategies from market-oriented entrepreneurs, further developing these strategies in in-situ experiments with input suppliers, crop-oriented entrepreneurs and advisers, and co-creating guidelines for integrated production strategies with these partners for both crop-oriented and costs-oriented entrepreneurs. The costs-oriented interviewees often had financial problems and/or plans to sell their business. Consequently, knowledge investments in this specific subgroup will, in many cases, not lead to adoption of new crop protection solutions.

Area-wide releases and evaluation of the parasitoidEretmocerus hayati(Hymenoptera:Aphelinidae) for silverleaf whitefly control

Silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia tabaci biotype B, is a major horticultural pest that costs Queensland vegetable growers millions of dollars in lost production and control measures each year. In the Bowen and Burdekin districts of North Queensland, the major cultivated SLW host crops are tomatoes, melons, green beans, pumpkins, eggplants, and cucumbers, which cover a total production area of approximately 6500 ha. Eretmocerus hayati, an effective SLW parasitoid, was imported into Australia by CSIRO in 2002 and released from quarantine in 2004. In 2006, DAFF established a mass-rearing unit for E. hayati at Bowen Research Station to provide E. hayati for release on vegetable farms within its SLW integrated pest management research program. A total of 1.3 million E. hayati were released over three seasons on 34 vegetable farms in the Bowen and Burdekin districts (October 2006 to December 2008). Post-release samplings were conducted across the release area over this time period with parasitism levels recorded in tomatoes, melons, beans, eggplants, pumpkins, and various SLW weed hosts. Sample data show that E. hayati established at most release sites as well as some non-release sites, indicating natural spread. Overall results from these three years of evaluation clearly demonstrated that E hayati releases played a significant role in SLW control. In most crops sampled, E hayati exerted between 30 and 80% parasitism. Even in regularly sprayed crops, such as tomato and eggplant, E. hayati was able to achieve an overall average parasitism of 45%.

Mapping gendered pest management knowledge, practices, and pesticide exposure pathways in Ghana and Mali

Global food security challenges demand an understanding of farmers’ gendered practices and perspectives. This research draws on data from a quantitative survey and qualitative methods to explore gender differences related to farmers’ practices, perceptions, and knowledge of pesticides and other pest management practices in tomato growing regions of Ghana and Mali. A pathways approach based on participatory mapping integrates findings and reveals gender differences in labor and knowledge at different stages of tomato production. Farmers in both countries are heavily reliant on pesticides, but there are also differences in pest management knowledge and practices between them. In Mali, farmers are more familiar with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, but less aware of potential health risks of pesticides and more likely to engage in dangerous agro-chemical practices. In both countries, women are significantly less aware of pesticide dangers and IPM techniques than men and exposed to pesticides though a variety of pathways. We argue that the gender division of labor and differences in access to resources, information, and power between the two sites leads to gendered pesticide exposure pathways that are often unseen by the biological scientists who tend to focus on the field. Gender inequalities in knowledge and unsafe practices were particularly apparent in Mali compared to Ghana, possibly due to the lower literacy rates and decision making power of women and their narrower range of involvement in tomato production. The article concludes with gender sensitive recommendations to improve IPM research methods, trainings, and technology diffusion.

Going the Distance: How Does Market Access Affect Demand for IPM Packages?

A challenge facing integrated pest management (IPM) technology transfer programs is to identify where to conduct outreach. As IPM is a knowledge-intensive management process, effective training usually requires sustained interactions between extension professionals and target farmers. Efforts to disseminate IPM are constrained by limited extension budgets and therefore should focus on areas with the greatest promise for adoption per cost of program delivery. This article presents a simple means of evaluating the potential promise for IPM information dissemination based primarily on distance to input and output markets and other factors such as access to irrigation and rainfall and household and farm characteristics. The method is applied to rural Honduras, where an active IPM research program has sought guidance on where to focus its dissemination efforts.

Potential Application of Pheromones in Monitoring, Mating Disruption, and Control of Click Beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae)

Wireworms, the larvae stage of click beetles (family, Elateridae), are serious soil dwelling pests of small grain, corn, sugar beet, and potato crops globally. Since the 1950s, conventional insecticides such as lindane provided effective and inexpensive protection from wireworms, and little integrated pest management research (IPM) was conducted. The removal of these products from the agricultural market, particularly Lindane, has resulted in increasing levels of wireworm damage to small grain, corn, and potato crops. The wireworm damage has become an increasing problem for growers, so the demand for a meaningful risk assessment and useful methods to restrict damage is increasing. However, due to the cryptic habitat of the wireworms, pest control is very difficult and leads to unsatisfying results. The prospective appropriateness of sex pheromone traps for employing management strategies against wireworm’s populations was first suggested with experimentation in Hungary and Italy. Simultaneously, considerable work has been done on the identification and use of pheromone traps to monitor population of click beetles. The work has been mostly done in European and former Soviet Union countries. For this paper, we reviewed what work has been done in monitoring the click beetle which was considered as pests and how the pheromones can be used in IPM to monitor and control wireworms/click beetles. Also, the possibilities of using the pheromone-baited traps for mating disruption and control tested in the fields were summarized.

Expanding Integrated Pest Management Capacity: Rwanda Case Study

PurposeRwanda is developing its agricultural capacity to meet the needs of national food security while addressing food demands and requirements of regional and international markets. The Rwanda Horticultural Export Standards Initiative was developed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources in collaboration with Michigan State University to strengthen Rwanda's ability to meet both public and private standards for exports of food and agricultural products through capacity building.Design/Methodology/ApproachA workshop was held in Kigali to help expand Rwanda pest management specialists' understanding of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in relation to local and international specialty crop markets. During the workshop, pre and post-assessments were conducted to evaluate the IPM knowledge and information delivery systems.FindingsAlthough the trainees were the country's top pest management specialists, there was a significant increase (35.7%) in understanding of IPM approaches for specialty crops. There were little or no pest management services available to support specialty crop producers. Researchers were ranked most knowledgeable but the least accessible to specialty crop producers. People involved in information dissemination were most accessible but least knowledgeable. Institutions' structure and function hindered IPM information flow.Practical implicationThere is need to invest in specialty crops IPM research and develop a strong private sector to provide IPM services to farmers.Originality/ValueIPM stakeholders, including policy-makers, need to address the identified constraints to improve information flow among public and private sectors partners for enhancing exports of specialty crops.

Contemporary and historical classification of crop types in Arizona

This research compares three different classification algorithms for mapping crops in Pinal County, Arizona, using both present and historical image data. The study area lacked past crop maps, and farmers were dealing with the risk of evolution of resistance to insecticides in the whitefly, a global pest of cotton, fruits, and vegetables. The ability to create historical crop maps without concurrent training data is an invaluable tool for historical integrated pest management research. Comparison of maximum likelihood, object-oriented, and regression tree classifiers was done with Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery and high quality crop maps. Classification outputs for the three years in this research all achieved overall accuracies above the traditional benchmark of 85%. Comparison of the classification results shows that the classification and regression tree technique clearly outperformed the other classifiers. Using training data from one year and applying that data to another year for classification purposes demonstrated that overall accuracies from 71% to 83% are achievable, although accuracies were consistently greater than 85% for some crops.

How agro-ecological research helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems

Drivers behind food security and crop protection issues are discussed in relation to food losses caused by pests. Pests globally consume food estimated to feed an additional one billion people. Key drivers include rapid human population increase, climate change, loss of beneficial on-farm biodiversity, reduction in per capita cropped land, water shortages, and EU pesticide withdrawals under policies relating to 91/414 EEC. IPM (Integrated Pest Management) will be compulsory for all EU agriculture by 2014 and is also being widely adopted globally. IPM offers a 'toolbox' of complementary crop- and region-specific crop protection solutions to address these rising pressures. IPM aims for more sustainable solutions by using complementary technologies. The applied research challenge now is to reduce selection pressure on single solution strategies, by creating additive/synergistic interactions between IPM components. IPM is compatible with organic, conventional, and GM cropping systems and is flexible, allowing regional fine-tuning. It reduces pests below economic thresholds utilizing key 'ecological services', particularly biocontrol. A recent global review demonstrates that IPM can reduce pesticide use and increase yields of most of the major crops studied. Landscape scale 'ecological engineering', together with genetic improvement of new crop varieties, will enhance the durability of pest-resistant cultivars (conventional and GM). IPM will also promote compatibility with semiochemicals, biopesticides, precision pest monitoring tools, and rapid diagnostics. These combined strategies are urgently needed and are best achieved via multi-disciplinary research, including complex spatio-temporal modelling at farm and landscape scales. Integrative and synergistic use of existing and new IPM technologies will help meet future food production needs more sustainably in developed and developing countries, in an era of reduced pesticide availability. Current IPM research gaps are identified and discussed.

Returns to Integrated Pest Management Research and Outreach for Soybean Aphid

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, is a major invasive pest that has caused substantial yield loss and increased insecticide use in the United States since its discovery in 2000. Using the economic surplus approach, we estimate the economic benefits of U.S. research and outreach for integrated pest management (IPM) of soybean aphid. We calculate ex ante net benefits from adoption of an IPM economic threshold (ET). The ET triggers insecticide application only if the value of predicted yield damage from pest scouting is expected to exceed the cost of pest control. Our research finds that gradual adoption of an ET for soybean aphid management will generate a projected economic net benefit of $1.3 billion, for an internal rate of return of 124%, over the 15 yr since soybean aphid IPM research began in 2003. Lower and upper bound sensitivity analysis brackets the estimated net benefit to U.S. consumers and soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., growers in the range of $0.6 to $2.6 billion in 2005 dollars. If a 10% rate of return is attributed to IPM applied research and outreach on soybean aphid, that would leave nearly $800 million to compensate prior activities that contribute to the development and adoption of IPM.

Functions, Evolution, and Benefits of State Integrated Pest Management Programs

The purpose of the Land Grant University Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Program has been to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks by establishing sustainable pest management systems in rural and urban environments (T. Fuchs, personnal communication, Professor and Extension IPM Coordinator, Texas A&M University (retired)). These programs have become highly productive and cost effective, consistently delivering valuable benefits to university administrations, key clientele groups, and the citizens of the states in which they operate. IPM is the coordinated use of pest and environmental information, along with available pest control methods, to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by using the safest and most economical means (adapted from Bajwa and Kogan 2000). Each state IPM program is uniquely structured to effectively manage available resources through cooperative planning, priority setting, and accountability. Partnerships are established and maintained among researchers, who are the source of new technologies, and extension personnel, who deliver new information and training. Typical clientele-oriented products include pest management guides, training aids, scientific and trade journal articles, newsletters, displays, lectures, and workshops. These state IPM programs make up a powerful national IPM network with 56 individual state and commonwealth programs organized into four geographical regions. This network provides an essential mechanism for coordinating inter-state and multidisciplinary IPM research and educational projects that deliver much-needed information and technologies. Therefore, to have the most effective and efficient pest management capabilities and capture the benefits of the national IPM network, every land grant university should consolidate its IPM activities into an identifiable, coherent statewide program. In this article, we describe the functions, development, and extraordinary benefits of robust and comprehensive state IPM programs.

Impact of integrated pest management on food and horticultural crops in Africa

AbstractIn sustainable agricultural development, integrated pest management (IPM) can play a key role in the reduction of crop losses, thereby increasing productivity while minimizing environmental contamination and health hazards. In recent years, agricultural research and development partners have pioneered outstanding contributions in IPM, notably in varietal resistance against pests, biological control of alien invasive species, substitution of inorganic pesticides with biopesticides, new export market opportunities, and new tools in biotechnology. Success stories are not limited to these areas, but are also found in the areas of human capital development, information management, and participatory approaches. The potential of IPM to contribute to poverty alleviation and food security is, however, poorly realized in Africa due to a myriad of factors, including inadequate deployment of high‐yielding crop varieties, harmful pesticide regimes, political instability, conflicts in social values and civil wars, inappropriate agricultural policies, biased global trade policies, lack of market information, and poor rural infrastructures. Few African countries have adopted IPM as the official national crop protection policy and there is no framework for resource allocation to support widespread promotion of research and training in IPM. This calls for reshaping and revisiting a number of policies related to food production and agricultural development, in order to encourage partnership and participation in the identification, analysis, advocacy, and follow‐up of agricultural policy issues as well as public awareness of the effect of pests and diseases on food security and the environment.

An overview of integrated pest management (IPM) in north-eastern Australian grain farming systems: past, present and future prospects

The authors overview integrated pest management (IPM) in grain crops in north-eastern Australia, which is defined as the area north of latitude 32°S. Major grain crops in this region include the coarse grains (winter and summer cereals), oilseeds and pulses. IPM in these systems is complicated by the diversity of crops, pests, market requirements and cropping environments. In general, the pulse crops are at greatest risk, followed by oilseeds and then by cereal grains. Insecticides remain a key grain pest management tool in north-eastern Australia. IPM in grain crops has benefited considerably through the increased adoption of new, more selective insecticides and biopesticides for many caterpillar pests, in particular Helicoverpa spp. and loopers, and the identification of pest–crop scenarios where spraying is unnecessary (e.g. for most Creontiades spp. populations in soybeans). This has favoured the conservation of natural enemies in north-eastern Australia grain crops, and has arguably assisted in the management of silverleaf whitefly in soybeans in coastal Queensland. However, control of sucking pests and podborers such as Maruca vitrata remains a major challenge for IPM in summer pulses. Because these crops have very low pest-damage tolerances and thresholds, intervention with disruptive insecticides is frequently required, particularly during podfill. The threat posed by silverleaf whitefly demands ongoing multi-pest IPM research, development and extension as this pest can flare under favourable seasonal conditions, especially where disruptive insecticides are used injudiciously. The strong links between researchers and industry have facilitated the adoption of IPM practices in north-eastern Australia and augers well for future pest challenges and for the development and promotion of new and improved IPM tactics.

Integrating Biological and Chemical Controls in Decision Making: European Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Control in Sweet Corn as an Example

As growers switch to transgenic crops and selective insecticides that are less toxic to natural enemies, natural enemies can become more important in agricultural pest management. Current decision-making guides are generally based on pest abundance and do not address pest and natural enemy toxicity differences among insecticides or the impact of natural enemies on pest survival. A refined approach to making pest management decisions is to include the impact of natural enemies and insecticides, thereby better integrating biological and chemical control. The result of this integration is a dynamic threshold that varies for each product and the level of biological control expected. To demonstrate the significance of conserved biological control in commercial production, a decision-making guide was developed that evaluates control options for European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), in sweet corn, Zea mays L., where the primary natural enemies are generalist predators. Management options are lambda-cyhalothrin (broad-spectrum insecticide), spinosad (selective insecticide), Trichogramma ostriniae (Peng and Chen) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) (parasitoid), and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) sweet corn (transgenic variety). The key factors influencing thresholds for all treatments are the intended market, predator populations, and the presence of alternative foods for the predators. Treatment cost is the primary factor separating the threshold for each treatment within a common scenario, with the lowest cost treatment having the lowest pest threshold. However, when the impact of a treatment on natural enemies is projected over the 3-wk control period, the impact of the treatment on predators becomes the key factor in determining the threshold, so the lowest thresholds are for broad-spectrum treatments, whereas selective products can have thresholds > 6 times higher by the third week. This decision guide can serve as a framework to help focus future integrated pest management research and to aid in the selection of pest management tools.