Integrated Control Program Research Articles

Review of the Beekeeping Vigilance Methods and Perspectives

A collapse of bee colonies, for the first time in Morocco, of unknown origin, was announced on January 21, 2022 by the National Office for Food Safety (ONSSA). Causes were mentioned such as the unprecedented drought affecting the country and climate change as well as the use of pesticides and the appearance of new hive parasites and viruses. Colony collapse disorder (CCD) has been reported in several parts of the world, including Europe, Canada and Asia. Due to the agro-economic and ecological interest of the bee in the pollination of fruit trees and various seasonal and annual crops, the condition is considered alarming. Hence the need for an integrated control program that uses various monitoring measures and a set of mechanical, physical, biological and chemical control methods against hive pests. A census of the observation and countermeasures of Morocco and at the level of the world in the face of this problem was carried out. Viral diseases (<i>Dicistroviridae </i>in the United States) or parasites (in Spain, the fungus <i>Nosema</i> <i>cerenae</i>, <i>varroa</i> destructor in Canada, <i>Varroa</i>, itself vector of the virus), livestock management problems (transhumance and inbreeding) and the use of pesticides (the Gaucho, banned on sunflower since 1999 in France) remain the most studied causes. Surveillance and vigilance networks for beekeepers whose objective is to continuously inform the beekeeping sector of the general state of health of bees (mortality, theft of hives, invasions by other insects and parasites, etc.) everywhere in the world are essential. The <i>ApiVigi</i>® network is an example.

Identification of common spatial and temporal trends in the epidemiology of cattle bovine tuberculosis and human extrapulmonary and drug-resistant tuberculosis in Malawi

BackgroundIdentification of common spatial disease trends between cattle bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and human extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) and drug-resistant tuberculosis (DRTB) can support integrated disease control and monitoring programmes. We employed the recently developed multivariate disease mapping methods to examine whether the diseases exhibited any spatial correlation. MethodsA retrospective study of cattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB cases from 2018 to 2022 was conducted. Bivariate shared spatiotemporal components models were fitted to a) cattle BTB and human EPTB and b) cattle BTB and human DRTB at the district level in Malawi, with cattle density, human density and climatic variables as independent variables. ResultsDisease specific spatial effects were higher in the southern half of the country, while the shared spatial effects were more dominant in both the south and western parts of the country. The shared temporal effects showed constant trends, while disease specific temporal effects showed an increasing pattern for cattle BTB and a constant pattern for human EPTB and DRTB. The predicted disease incidence pattern for all forms of TB in the period without data showed a constant pattern over the years. Cattle density was positively associated with cattle BTB (β: 0.022; 95% Credible Interval (CI): 0.004, 0.042). Human density was positively associated with human EPTB (β: 0.005; 95% CI: 0.001, 0.009). ConclusionCattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB have a common spatial pattern in the west and southern parts of Malawi. Integrated interventions targeting high-density areas for cattle and human may have positive impacts on cattle BTB and human EPTB and DRTB.

The impact of soil transmitted helminth on malaria clinical presentation and treatment outcome: A case control study among children in Bagamoyo district, coastal region of Tanzania.

Parasitic infectious agents rarely occur in isolation. Epidemiological evidence is mostly lacking, and little is known on how the two common parasites Plasmodium and soil transmitted helminths (STH) interact. There are contradictory findings in different studies. Synergism, antagonism and neutral effect have been documented between Plasmodium and STH. This study investigated the impact of STH on clinical malaria presentation and treatment outcome. A matched case control study with a semi longitudinal follow up according to World Health Organization (WHO) antimalarial surveillance guideline was done among children aged 2 months to 9 years inclusively living in western rural areas of Bagamoyo, coastal region of Tanzania. Cases were children with uncomplicated and severe malaria enrolled from the health facilities while controls were children with asymptomatic Plasmodium parasitemia enrolled from the same community. In simple conditional regression analysis there was a tendency for a protective effect of STH on the development of clinical malaria [OR = 0.6, 95% CI of 0.3-1.3] which was more marked for Enterobius vermicularis species [OR = 0.2, 95% CI of 0.0-0.9]. On the contrary, hookworm species tended to be associated with increased risk of clinical malaria [OR = 3.0, 95% CI of 0.9-9.5]. In multiple conditional regression analysis, the overall protective effect was lower for all helminth infection [OR = 0.8, 95% CI of 0.3-1.9] but remained significantly protective for E. vermicularis species [OR = 0.1, 95% CI of 0.0-1.0] and borderline significant for hookworm species [OR = 3.6, 95% CI of 0.9-14.3]. Using ordinal logistic regression which better reflects the progression of asymptomatic Plasmodium parasitemia to severe malaria, there was a 50% significant protective effect with overall helminths [OR = 0.5, 95% CI of 0.3-0.9]. On the contrary, hookworm species was highly predictive of uncomplicated and severe malaria [OR = 7.8, 95% (CI of 1.8-33.9) and 49.7 (95% CI of 1.9-1298.9) respectively]. Generally, children infected with STH had higher geometric mean time to first clearance of parasitemia. The findings of a protective effect of E. vermicularis and an enhancing effect of hookworms may explain the contradictory results found in the literature about impact of helminths on clinical malaria. More insight should be gained on possible mechanisms for these opposite effects. These results should not deter at this stage deworming programs but rather foster implementation of integrated control program for these two common parasites.

Challenges and Opportunities in the Sustainable Improvement of Carrot Production.

From an agricultural perspective, carrots are a significant tap root vegetable crop in the Apiaceae family because of their nutritional value, health advantages, and economic importance. The edible part of a carrot, known as the storage root, contains various beneficial compounds, such as carotenoids, anthocyanins, dietary fiber, vitamins, and other nutrients. It has a crucial role in human nutrition as a significant vegetable and raw material in the nutraceutical, food, and pharmaceutical industries. The cultivation of carrot fields is susceptible to a wide range of biotic and abiotic hazards, which can significantly damage the plants' health and decrease yield and quality. Scientific research mostly focuses on important biotic stressors, including pests, such as nematodes and carrot flies, as well as diseases, such as cavity spots, crown or cottony rot, black rot, and leaf blight, caused by bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. The emerging challenges in the field include gaining a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between hosts and pathogens in the carrot-pathogen system, identifying the elements that contribute to disease development, expanding knowledge of systemic treatments, exploring host resistance mechanisms, developing integrated control programs, and enhancing resistance through breeding approaches. In fact, the primary carrot-growing regions in tropical and subtropical climates are experiencing abiotic pressures, such as drought, salinity, and heat stress, which limit carrot production. This review provides an extensive, up-to-date overview of the literature on biotic and abiotic factors for enhanced and sustainable carrot production, considering the use of different technologies for the shelf-life extension of carrots. Therefore, it addresses the current issues in the carrot production chain, opening new perspectives for the exploration of carrots both as a food commodity and as a source of natural compounds.

Health workers' perspectives on school-based mass drug administration control programs for soil-transmitted helminthiasis and schistosomiasis in Ogun State, Nigeria.

Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) and schistosomiasis (SCH) are among the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), affecting 1.5 billion globally, with a significant burden in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Nigeria. These diseases impair health and contribute to socio-economic challenges, especially in children, undermining educational and future economic prospects. The 2030 NTD Roadmap highlights Mass Drug Administration (MDA) as a critical strategy for controlling these NTDs, targeting vulnerable populations like school-age children. Despite some successes, challenges persist, indicating the need for deeper insights into program implementation. This study focuses on the perspectives of health workers implementing MDA in selected local government areas (LGAs) of Ogun State, Nigeria, aiming to identify challenges and enablers that align with the broader NTD 2030 goals. The study used a qualitative research approach involving focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with health workers engaged in neglected tropical disease control programs in Ogun State, Nigeria, between July and September 2022. A semi-structured questionnaire guided the exploration of ideas, and the data were analyzed using the QRS Nvivo 12 software package. The study found that the school-based MDA control program's efficacy largely relies on strong collaborations and partnerships, particularly with educators, community heads, and other stakeholders. These alliances and strategic communication methods, like town announcements and media campaigns, have been pivotal in reaching communities. However, the program does grapple with hurdles such as parental misconceptions, limited funds, insufficient staffing, and misalignment with the Ministry of Education. It is recommended to boost funding, foster early stakeholder involvement, enhance mobilization techniques, and consider introducing a monitoring card system similar to immunization. The MDA Integrated Control Programs for STH and SCH in Ogun State schools demonstrate a holistic approach, integrating knowledge, collaboration, communication, and feedback. Health workers have shown commitment and adeptness in their roles. However, achieving maximum efficacy requires addressing critical barriers, such as parental misconceptions and funding challenges. Adopting the recommended strategies, including proactive communication, increased remuneration, and introducing a tracking system, can significantly enhance the program's reach and impact. The involvement of all stakeholders, from health workers to community leaders and parents, is essential for the program's sustainability and success.

The Control of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, Causing Bacterial Spot Disease in Tomato, by Different Plant Essential Oils

Seed-borne Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato causes bacterial spot disease in tomatoes and causes serious economic losses by affecting yield and quality in tomato cultivation. In this study, the effect of essential oils obtained by distillation from Mentha longifolia, Thymus migricus, Salvia hydrangea and Artemisia absinthium and Achillea arabica plants on the control of P. syringae pv. tomato was investigated. The antibacterial activities of plant essential oils against P. syringae pv. tomato were tested by the in vitro agar disk diffusion method. Additionally, minimum inhibitory concentrations at which plant essential oils inhibit the growth of Pst 76 were determined. It was determined that all oils created an inhibition zone between 4.0-30.0 mm against the disease agent and the highest activity was obtained from application with the oil of the T. migricus plant. It was determined that the oils obtained from T. migricus and M. longifolia plants had higher antimicrobial activity than methylmycin in the control group. In line with the results obtained, disease control with essential oils has been seen as an alternative method that can be included in integrated control programs.

Implementation of an integrated control programme for neglected tropical diseases of the skin in Ghana: The essential role of the laboratory

IntroductionIn this study, we report on findings from approaches used, the outcomes and the lessons learnt from the laboratory support provided for integrated control of skin NTDs including Buruli ulcer (BU), and yaws in seven selected districts in Ghana. MethodsActions implemented from July 2018 to October 2022 included; training district-level health workers on specimen collection, storage, and transport to laboratories, integrated case searches, continual monitoring and supervision for trained health workers, laboratory confirmation of BU and yaws samples and providing results of the analysed samples to guide decision making. Descriptive analysis of data was performed. ResultsA total of 18,683 (including suspected BU 976; suspected yaws 10,995) individuals were screened for BU and yaws. Of 976 suspected BU cases, 16.8% [median (IQR) age 24 (12.0–37.8) years] were confirmed positive by IS2404 PCR; BU mostly presented as ulcers (78.7%); category I (37.2%) and category II (36%). 480 individuals (4.4%) had DPP positive yaws. Multiplex PCR analysis of 75 selected DPP positive cases identified; 7 DPP positive yaws cases as Treponema pallidum, 28 as Haemophilus ducreyi and 7 as Treponema pallidum/Haemophilus ducreyi coinfection. Laboratory results were sent to the districts within a median (IQR) of 5 (3 – 9) days. ConclusionThe implementation of integrated diagnostic confirmation for skin NTDs is feasible with provision of timely results within a week. Multiplex diagnostic tools differentiated Treponema pallidum and Haemophilus ducreyi. There is a need to sustain active case search activities, enhance health worker training, and improve laboratory confirmation of cases as part of the overall strategy for the integrated control of skin neglected tropical diseases.

Social, behavioral and environmental determinants of vector-borne diseases: A narrative review of evidence and implications for integrated control approaches.

Vector-borne diseases exert immense health burdens worldwide. Malaria alone causes over 200 million cases and 600,000 deaths annually. Transmission involves complex drivers requiring examination beyond entomological factors. A systematic literature search across databases identified relevant studies on vector-borne disease determinants published in the last two decades, with priority given to rigorous designs like longitudinal analyses, reviews, and meta-analyses from diverse epidemic regions, allowing narrative synthesis of key determinants, relationships, and gaps. This narrative review synthesizes evidence on social, behavioral, and environmental determinants of major vector-borne disease risks over the past decade. Lower education, poverty, unplanned urbanization, gender inequities, inadequate water and waste management, climate variations, and land-use changes stood out as key determinants. However, significant knowledge gaps remain around quantifying precise threshold effects and impacts of tailored interventions across contexts. A social-ecological perspective recognizing interdependencies between determinants should frame integrated control programs. Multicomponent strategies addressing environmental modifications, protective measures, behavioral motivators, and infrastructure alongside governance and community engagement require implementation research and impact evaluation. Overall, this review highlights priority areas for advancing evidence-based vector control through contextualized, determinant-targeted policies and interventions. Further research incorporating modeling, trials, and cost-effectiveness analyses is critical to validate approaches that address influential drivers, leverage motivators, and reduce the global burden.

The Vicious Worm education tool improves the knowledge of community health workers on Taenia solium cysticercosis in Rwanda.

The pork tapeworm Taenia solium causes human taeniasis and cysticercosis when ingested as viable cysts and eggs, respectively. Despite its high health burden in low-income countries, knowledge of the parasite in endemic areas such as Rwanda is often limited. Here, we assess whether The Vicious Worm education software can increase knowledge in endemic areas of Rwanda. A cross-sectional mixed-methods study was conducted to evaluate knowledge about T. solium among community health workers trained using the Vicious Worm education software. Knowledge was assessed before, immediately after, and four weeks after the training. The health workers perceptions of the software were analysed thematically. A total of 207 community health workers were recruited from Nyamagabe district in Southern Province, Rwanda. Participants were composed of males (33.5%) and females (66.5%), aged between 22 and 68 years, and most (71%) had only completed primary education. Knowledge of cysticercosis at baseline was low, particularly knowledge of human cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis. The overall knowledge score increased significantly after training and was maintained four weeks after the training. Overall, insufficient knowledge was associated with neurocysticercosis-related questions, which after the training, remained relatively lower compared to questions of other categories. Participants reported the software to be user-friendly and educational. Digital illiteracy and the lack of smartphones were among the critical challenges highlighted in responses. This study has shown gaps in knowledge regarding T. solium infections within rural Rwanda, particularly neurocysticercosis. Health education using the Vicious Worm education software should be considered in integrated control programs.

Evaluation of an integrated control program for Downy mildew of grapes in Egypt

Evaluation of an integrated control program for Downy mildew of grapes in Egypt

Effectiveness of health education in improving knowledge, attitude and practice related to foodborne zoonotic trematodes in Vietnam, with a particular focus on Clonorchis sinensis.

Foodborne zoonotic trematodes (FZT), which infect the liver, lungs and intestines of humans, are an emerging public health concern in tropical countries including Vietnam. In northern Vietnam, Clonorchis sinensis is recognised as the most important species of the FZT. Up to now, small-scale studies conducted in the country have indicated that health education could improve participants' knowledge and practices related to clonorchiasis, however strong evidence is still lacking. We conducted an intervention trial between 2020 and 2021 in four communes in Yen Bai and Thanh Hoa province, aiming to evaluate the impact of an extended educational package on knowledge, attitude and practices related to clonorchiasis, as well as on knowledge on the large liver fluke and minute intestinal flukes. To this end, baseline and post-intervention questionnaires were conducted. Generalised estimating equations models were run to analyse the impact of the intervention on knowledge, attitudes and practices over time in the intervention versus control group. Finally, 172 people in the intervention group and 162 in the control group were included for analysis. Results demonstrated that the intervention significantly improved clonorchiasis knowledge, attitudes and practices, with higher odds for a correct knowledge response (odds ratio (OR) = 2.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.84-4.27, p-value < 0.001), increased average mean attitude score (mean = 0.363, 95%CI = 0.182-0.544, p-value < 0.001), and a reduced odds of consuming raw fish (OR = 0.15, 95%CI = 0.06-0.40, p = 0.002) in the intervention group compared to the control group post-intervention versus baseline. Additionally, participants in the intervention group exhibited enhanced basic knowledge of the large liver fluke and minute intestinal flukes post-intervention. These findings demonstrate the potential of health education programs in preventing clonorchiasis in endemic areas, emphasising the importance of continued health education as a critical component of integrated control programs for clonorchiasis.

Integrated Control of Some Fungal Diseases Affecting Guava and Pomegranate from Farm to Fork in Egypt

These studies aim to identify a group of pathogens and design an integrated control program reducing the infection in Guava Psidium guajava and Pomegranate Punica granatum by cross inoculation method. Almost eight fungi were collected from governorate Ismaelia and Behera in 2019. Alternaria alternate, Fusarium spp, Phomopsis psidii, Macrophomina spp., Cercospora spp. Botrytis cineria and Pestalotia spp. were the most frequencies isolated fungi on all fruits. In the second season 2020 we treated trees with biocides, fungicides and fertilizer they gave significant differences between the treated treatments and control .The bluegreen algae bio treatment, showed the best results compared with both of RizoN and Plantagaurd treatments, the percentage of disease severity on the leaves was 13.4%, compared to the control45%, the best chemical treatment was Fungalpro, Topsin and Collise, where the disease severity was 0% in case of guava ,the same results obtained in pomegranate .At the end of the season, the best results were in the treatment with fungalpro which gave the least disease severity percentage on each of the leaves, branches and fruits in both guava and pomegranate .In the third season 2022 we applied integrated control program there were a significant decrease in pathogenic fungi in leaves, branches, flowers and ripe fruits, as the population at the end of the season for some fungi reached zero, such as Phomopsis sp. and Pestalotia sp. As Alternaria fungus, the results showed significant differences compared with the control, with regard to Guava, the percentage of disease severity in fruits was 8.75% and 9.75% in both Ismailia and South of Tahrir, respectively, compared to the control, which reached 85.5% and 88.5% in Ismailia and South of Tahrir, respectively. The results for pomegranate followed the same pattern.

Integrated Management Program against Cattle Ticks: Current Status in Mexico

Ticks and mosquitoes, as vectors of diseases, pose a significant threat to global animal and human health. The primary control method for ticks has been the use of chemical products. However, this approach has led to severe issues such as acaricideresistant ticks and environmental pollution. Given these challenges, the potential of immunological control using tick proteins emerges as a promising alternative to manage tick populations, offering hope in the battle against these parasites. Other alternatives, such as pasture management, biological control, and the use of resistant livestock, are also helpful for implementing integrated control programs. Applying strategic treatment schedules with synthetic chemical acaricides to control the parasitism of R. microplus in Mexico can contribute to obtaining better live weight gains in growing cattle by preventing high infestation levels with this tick. This review briefly summarizes the current situation regarding the alternatives to control R. microplus ticks in Mexico that can be implemented to design an integrated management program.

Use of Biological and Chemical Compounds for the Integrated Management of Apricot Powdery Mildew in Egypt

This study aims to evaluate an integrated management program for powdery mildew caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa in apricot trees Prunus armeniaca, where four fungicides Copper, Carbendazim, Praiz and Topas) and three biocides ( Bio Z , Bio Arc and Activator Yeasts ) were evaluated in the first season 2020 in Ismailia and Beheira governorates in the regions of South Tahrir and Nubariya. All compounds significantly reduced the percentage of disease severity on leaves and flowers compared to the control, and the activator yeasts was among the best treatments, as it recorded in the last spraying a percentage of disease severity on leaves and flower 28.5% and 27.6% respectively compared with control 52.7 %and 56.2%, followed by the biocides Bio Z and Bio Arc.In the second season 2021, the compounds were evaluated during the flowering period, which led to their precipitation and the occurrence of plant toxicity for flowers at their highest rates with copper. As for the biocides compounds, they were completely safe.From here, an integrated control program was designed for two seasons 2022 and 2023 that combines fungicides and biocides. It is applied early before flowering. It gave excellent results, reduced the rate of fungicide use, and was safer and cost-saving.

Effectiveness of Bacillus pseudomycoides strain for Biocontrol of Early Blight on tomato plants

Alternaria early blight is an air-borne and soil-borne pathogen that cause losses and damages that can reach up to 80% in tomato production. In our work, the immediate antagonistic effect of Bacillus pseudomycoides was inspected against Alternaria early blight of tomato. Bacillus pseudomycoides (Bp1) (OQ629426) gave inhibition efficacy against A. solani growth, being, 74.22 %. Invitro, Bp1 had the capability to produce the endogenous plant auxin (IAA) it was 18.9 (µg/100 mL), the quantity of GA 9.4 (µg/100 mL), 95.8 μ Deferroxamine mesylate. Tomato plants treated with B. pseudomycoides registered the least disease severity, being 50 and 40 % in Mancozeb + ALS and Bp1+ ALS treatments with high efficiency to control the severity between 75 and 100 % respectively. Tomato plants treated with B. pseudomycoides showed improved growth characteristics as compared with the untreated control. Plants with bacterial treatment conferred 45.6 cm shoot length, 2.9 (g∕plant) fresh weight and 0.7 (g∕plant) Dry weight. The highest increase in the activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) was observed in the infected leaves of tomato plants treated with B. pseudomycoides Bp1 (T4) (4.6, 6.9 m/g f. w.) respectively, followed by treatment of plants with Mancozeb (T3) (3.9, 5.4 m/g f. w.) respectively, compared to other treatments. This study suggested that B. pseudomycoides is a promising biocontrol agent against Alternaria early blight. This bacterium may represent an important source of potential antimicrobial bio-agent against Alternaria early blight disease, also it may play a role in the development of integrated control programs in future studies.

Population genetic characterization of (Aedes albopictus) mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Yangtze River Basin of China based on rDNA-ITS2.

Aedes albopictus is an important vector of many mosquito-borne viral diseases, including dengue fever and Zika. In recent years, it has spread and colonized tropical, subtropical and temperate regions worldwide. Monitoring of Ae. albopictus population dynamics is an important tool for early warning of mosquito-borne infections. Because the genetic diversity and genetic structure of natural populations are the genetic bases of population dynamics, studies of population genetics can reveal the origin, differentiation and dispersal characteristics of Ae. albopictus populations. Then, their evolutionary potential and environmental adaptability can be analyzed, providing a theoretical basis for the formulation of accurate Ae. albopictus surveillance and integrated control programs. In 2018, 552 Ae. albopictus larvae were collected during an invasive mosquito species surveillance project in China's Yangtze River Basin. Morphological analysis was performed to assign the adult mosquitoes to species, and then the genetic marker ITS2 was amplified and sequenced. There were 179 haplotypes among 552 ITS2 sequences. In total, 155/179 (86.59%) haplotypes were specific to individual populations, and 24/179 (13.41%) haplotypes were shared by populations. Hap4 (126), Hap7 (43), and Hap16 (34) were the most numerous haplotypes and the most widely distributed. The overall Hd was 0.928, π was 0.031, the mean nucleotide difference number (K) was 7.255, and the number of segregating sites was 169. TCS network maps mainly showed a single star-like scattered distribution. According to geographical location, there were no obvious haplotype groups, and the haplotypes were intricately connected. The genetic diversity of Ae. albopictus populations in the Yangtze River Basin was high. The molecular variance observed in the populations of Ae. albopictus mainly occurred among individuals within populations, accounting for 98.79% of the total, while that among populations accounted for only 1.21% of the total. Only the populations of Ae. albopictus in the Chongqing and Sichuan regions showed a moderate degree of population genetic differentiation, while genetic differentiation between the other regions were small, gene exchange was very common, and genetic differentiation within populations was minimal. According to this study, the genetic diversity of Ae. albopictus populations in the Yangtze River Basin is high, the genetic differentiation among populations is small, and gene exchange is common. In addition, frequent interregional exchange exacerbates the abnormal spread of vectors. This study highlighted the potential spread route of the vector Ae. albopictus in the Yangtze River Basin. There are three potential dispersal routes for Ae. albopictus populations in the Yangtze River Basin. The findings could be helpful for effective surveillance and early warning of Ae. albopictus vectors.

The Economic Return of the Application of the Technical Recommendations of the Integrated Date Palm Pest Management Program (Babylon Governorate as a Model)

The research aimed to identify the effectiveness of the integrated control system in resisting pests that affect palm trees from an economic perspective, by measuring the impact of its application on some economic variables represented in productivity per donum, total costs per donum, total revenue and net return per donum. The results showed the positive impact of the application of the integrated control program on Productivity, where the average productivity of the donum for the low application level was about 1548 kg/donum, while the average application level was about 2264.2 kg/donum, the high application was about 1710.8 kg/donum. For the total costs, it was found that the low application level was about 182957.3 dinars/donum, the average application level was about 127188 dinars/donum, and the high application was about 176440.7 dinars/donum and for the net donum return, it was found that the low application level was about 253580 dinars/donum. The average level of application amounted to about 354,570 dinars/donum, while the high application reached about 576,230 dinars/donum, and the study recommended the concerned authorities implement the integrated pest management program in the palm sector the need to increase material and guidance support for the program because of its positive impact on the economic and environmental aspect, coordination with the Directorate of Agriculture in Babylon Governorate, in which the program was implemented to work on follow-up in spreading technology and convincing farmers to adopt it through agricultural extension departments in This governorate and the need to find appropriate methods and mechanisms by the Ministry of Agriculture that encourage the private sector to provide supplies and alternatives to chemical pesticides to farmers instead of relying on the government sector.

Immune modulation of Th1/Th2/Treg/Th17/Th9/Th21 cells in rabbits infected with Eimeria stiedai.

Despite long-term integrated control programs for Eimeria stiedai infection in China, hepatic coccidiosis in rabbits persists. Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg, Th9, and Th21 cells are involved in immune responses during pathogen infection. It is unclear whether Th cell subsets are also involved in E. stiedai infection. Their roles in the immunopathology of this infection remain unknown. Therefore, monitoring these T-cell subsets' immune responses during primary infection of E. stiedai at both transcriptional (mRNA) and protein (cytokines) levels is essential. In experimentally infected New Zealand white rabbits, mRNA expression levels of their transcript-TBX2 (Th1), GATA3 (Th2), RORC (Th17), Foxp3 (Treg), SPI1 (Th9), and BCL6 (Th21)-were evaluated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), whereas Th1 (IFN-g and TNF-a), Th2 (IL4), Th17 (IL17A and IL6), Treg (IL10 and TGF-b1), Th9 (IL9), and Th21 (IL21) cytokines were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). We found that levels of TBX2, GATA3, RORC, SPI1, and BCL6 in the livers of infected rabbits were elevated on days 5 and 15 post-infection (PI). The concentrations of their distinctive cytokines IFN-g and TNF-a for Th1, IL4 for Th2, IL17A for Th17, IL9 for Th9, IL21 for Th21, and IL10 for Treg IL10 were also significantly increased on days 5 and 15 PI, respectively (p < 0.05). On day 23 PI, GATA3 with its cytokine IL4, RORC with IL17A, Foxp3 with IL10 and TGF-b1, and SPI1 with IL9 were significantly decreased, but TBX2 with IFN-g and IL6 remained elevated. Our findings are the first evidence of Th1/Th2/Treg/Th17/Th9/Th21 changes in E. stiedai-infected rabbits and provide insights into immune regulation mechanisms and possible vaccine development.

The impact of ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine citrate, and albendazole mass drug administration on the prevalence of scabies and soil-transmitted helminths in school-aged children in three municipalities in Timor-Leste: a before–after assessment

Integrated programmes that use combination mass drug administration (MDA) might improve control of multiple neglected tropical diseases simultaneously. We investigated the impact of Timor-Leste's national ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine citrate, and albendazole MDA, for lymphatic filariasis elimination and soil-transmitted helminth (STH) control, on scabies, impetigo, and STH infections. We did a before-after study in six primary schools across three municipalities in Timor-Leste (urban [Dili], semi-urban [Ermera], and rural [Manufahi]) before (April 23 to May 11, 2019) and 18 months after (Nov 9 to Nov 27, 2020) MDA delivery between May 17 and June 1, 2019. Study participants included schoolchildren, as well as infants, children, and adolescents who were incidentally present at school on study days. All schoolchildren whose parents provided consent were eligible to participate in the study. Infants, children, and adolescents younger than 19 years who were not enrolled in the school but were incidentally present at schools on study days were also eligible to participate if their parents consented. Ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine citrate, and albendazole MDA was implemented nationally, with single doses of oral ivermectin (200 μg/kg), diethylcarbamazine citrate (6 mg/kg), and albendazole (400 mg) administered by the Ministry of Health. Scabies and impetigo were assessed by clinical skin examinations, and STHs using quantitative PCR. The primary (cluster-level) analysis adjusted for clustering while the secondary (individual-level) analysis adjusted for sex, age, and clustering. The primary outcomes of the study were prevalence ratios for scabies, impetigo, and STHs (Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides, Necator americanus, and moderate-to-heavy A lumbricoides infections) between baseline and 18 months from the cluster-level analysis. At baseline, 1043 (87·7%) of 1190 children registered for the study underwent clinical assessment for scabies and impetigo. The mean age of those who completed skin examinations was 9·4 years (SD 2·4) and 514 (53·8%) of 956 were female (87 participants with missing sex data were excluded from this percentage calculation). Stool samples were received for 541 (45·5%) of 1190 children. The mean age of those for whom stool samples were received was 9·8 years (SD 2·2) and 300 (55·5%) were female. At baseline, 348 (33·4%) of 1043 participants had scabies, and 18 months after MDA, 133 (11·1%) of 1196 participants had scabies (prevalence ratio 0·38, 95% CI 0·18-0·88; p=0·020) in the cluster-level analysis. At baseline, 130 (12·5%) of 1043 participants had impetigo, compared with 27 (2·3%) of 1196 participants at follow-up (prevalence ratio 0·14, 95% CI 0·07-0·27; p<0·0001). There was a significant reduction in T trichiura prevalence from baseline (26 [4·8%] of 541 participants) to 18-month follow-up (four [0·6%] of 623 participants; prevalence ratio 0·16, 95% CI 0·04-0·66; p<0·0001). In the individual-level analysis, moderate-to-heavy A lumbricoides infections reduced from 54 (10·0%; 95% CI 0·7-19·6) of 541 participants to 28 (4·5%, 1·2-8·4) of 623 participants (relative reduction 53·6%; 95% CI 9·1-98·1; p=0·018). Ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine citrate, and albendazole MDA was associated with substantial reductions in prevalence of scabies, impetigo, and T trichiura, and of moderate-to-heavy intensity A lumbricoides infections. Combination MDA could be used to support integrated control programmes to target multiple NTDs. National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Indo-Pacific Centre for Health Security. For the Tetum translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Mass drug administration in neglected tropical diseases: beyond elimination

Mass drug administration in neglected tropical diseases: beyond elimination