Intake Of Total Saturated Fatty Acids Research Articles

Dietary intake and visceral adiposity in older adults: The Multiethnic Cohort Adiposity Phenotype study.

There are established links between the accumulation of body fat as visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and the risk of developing obesity-associated metabolic disease. Previous studies have suggested that levels of intake of specific foods and nutrients are associated with VAT accumulation after accounting for total energy intake. This study assessed associations between a priori selected dietary factors on VAT quantified using abdominal magnetic resonance imaging. The cross-sectional Multiethnic Cohort Adiposity Phenotype Study included n=395 White, n=274 Black, n=269 Native Hawaiian, n=425 Japanese American and n=358 Latino participants (mean age=69years±3 SD). Participants were enrolled stratified on sex, race, ethnicity and body mass index. General linear models were used to estimate the mean VAT area (cm2) for participants categorized into quartiles based on their dietary intake of selected foods/nutrients adjusting for age, sex, racial and ethnic groups, the total percentage fat from whole-body dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and total energy. There were significant inverse associations with VAT for dietary intake of total vegetables, total fruits (including juice), cereals, whole grains, calcium, copper and dietary fiber (p-trend ≤0.04). Positive trends were observed for VAT for participants who reported higher intake of potatoes, total fat and saturated fatty acids (SFA) (p-trend ≤0.02). Foods/nutrients that met the multiple testing significance threshold were total fruits, whole grains, copper, dietary fiber and SFA intake. These results highlight foods and nutrients including SFA, total fruit, whole grains, fiber and copper as potential candidates for future research to inform dietary guidelines for the prevention of chronic disease among older adults.

Associations between fatty acid intake and diabetic retinopathy in a Japanese population

Residents of Chikusei City, aged 40–74 years, underwent systemic and ophthalmological screening, and participants with diabetes were included in this analysis. Dietary intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire and calculated as a percentage of the total energy. The presence of diabetic retinopathy (DR) was defined as Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study levels ≥ 20 in either eye. The association between dietary fatty acid intake and DR has been examined in a cross-sectional study. Among the 647 diabetic participants, 100 had DR. The mean total fat and saturated fatty acid (SFA) intakes were 22.0% and 7.3% of the total energy intake, respectively. After adjusting for potential confounders, the highest quartiles of total fat and SFA intake were positively associated with the presence of DR compared with the lowest quartiles (odds ratios (95% confidence intervals), 2.61 (1.07–6.39), p for trend = 0.025, and 2.40 (1.12–5.17), p for trend = 0.013, respectively). No significant associations were found between DR prevalence and monounsaturated or unsaturated fatty acid intake. These results suggest that a high intake of fat and SFA may affect the development of DR, even in individuals whose total fat intake is generally much lower than that of Westerners.

Consumption of meat and dairy substitute products amongst vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians.

An increasing number of people adhere to plant-based diets, and the market for plant-based meat and dairy substitute products has been expanding rapidly. To examine total intake of macronutrients and salt in a sample of Norwegian vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians; the consumption frequency of plant-based meat and dairy substitutes and raw ingredients used in these products; and the contribution to total macronutrient and salt intake from these products. A cross-sectional design using single 24-h dietary recall to assess the intake of macronutrients, salt and substitute products that the participants (n = 158 Norway residents [age 18-60 years]: vegans [n = 83]; vegetarians [n = 47]; pescatarians [n = 28]) consumed. The chi-square test with pairwise comparisons and the Kruskal-Wallis test with post hoc test were used to compare differences between diet groups. Macronutrient and salt intake were assessed relative to the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR). Dietary macronutrient intake fell within NNR recommendations, with a favourable distribution of fatty acids and high levels of dietary fibre. Most of the vegans (90%), vegetarians (68%) and pescatarians (64%) consumed meat or dairy substitutes. The main raw ingredient in the substitute products was soy, followed by oats and peas. Overall, substitute products contributed to 12% of total energy and 16% of total salt intake. The substitute products contributed to higher saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake amongst vegans (27% of total SFA intake) compared with vegetarians (10%) and pescatarians (8%). Moreover, substitute products contributed to higher protein intake in vegans (19%) compared with pescatarians (7%). Most participants consumed meat or dairy substitute products, suggesting that these products are included regularly in Norwegian plant-based diets. Furthermore, substitute products may contribute to dietary fat, SFA and protein intake amongst vegans.

Dietary Fats and Cognitive Status in Italian Middle-Old Adults

The intake of total, single class of dietary fat, such as saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), and also single fatty acids grouped according to carbon-chain length, were evaluated by food frequency questionnaires (FFQs). Cognitive health was assessed using the short portable mental status questionnaire (SPMSQ). After adjustment for potential confounding factors subjects with a moderate consumption of both short-chain SFA (for Q2 vs. Q1, OR = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.66) and middle-chain SFA specifically lauric acid (C12:0) intake (for Q2 vs. Q1, OR = 0.27, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.77) were less likely to suffer from cognitive impairment. Among single MUFAs, erucic acid (C22:1) intake resulted in an inverse association, in a linear way, with cognitive impairment (for Q4 vs. Q1, OR = 0.04, 95% CI: 0.00, 0.39). Conversely, moderate intake of linoleic acid (C18:2) was associated with cognitive impairment (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 4.59, 95% CI: 1.51, 13.94). Regarding other PUFAs, individuals consuming moderate intake alpha linolenic acid (C18:3) were less likely to have cognitive impairment (for Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.64). Total SFA intake appeared to be inversely associated with cognitive impairment. Regarding specific subtypes of fatty acids, the results mostly referred to short- and middle-chain SFA. Further studies are needed to validate the results of the present study.

Association between Macronutrient and Fatty Acid Consumption and Metabolic Syndrome: A South African Taxi Driver Survey.

We aimed to examine the association between macronutrient and fatty acid intake and metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components in South African male mini-bus taxi drivers. One hundred and eighty-five (n = 185) male taxi drivers, aged 20 years and older, who operate in the Cape Town metropole, South Africa, were included. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) algorithm was used to define MetS. The association between macronutrient and fatty acid intake (assessed using 24 h recall) and MetS were analyzed using multivariable nutrient density substitution models. Overall, protein consumption significantly increased the likelihood of high blood pressure (HBP) and significantly lowered the likelihood of having low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). In an isoenergetic state, the intake of protein instead of carbohydrates (CHOs) and total fat, reduced the likelihood of elevated triglycerides by 6.7% and 6.6%, respectively. The intake of CHOs instead of protein and total fat, reduced the likelihood of HBP by 2.2% and 2.8%, respectively. In the same isoenergetic state, the intake of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) instead of mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) increased the likelihood of HBP by 9.8%, whereas the intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) instead of SFAs decreased the likelihood of HBP by 9.4%. The current study showed that when total food energy intake is kept constant, a diet that is high in protein, CHOs and PUFAs reduces triglycerides and BP, whereas the intake of total fat and SFAs had the opposite effect. It should, however, be noted that these outcomes were produced using mathematical models, as such we recommend further prospective studies in real life that will reveal the actual associations between the consumption of macronutrients and fatty acids and MetS and its components.

Intakes and sources of fat and fatty acids among pregnant women in Chengdu in 2017: a longitudinal study

To analyze the intake of fat and fatty acids and their food sources of pregnant women in Chengdu. Participants were from a cohort study in 2017, which was conducted among 1652 healthy singleton pregnant women within 6-14 weeks of gestation in a maternity out-patient clinic of maternal-and-child health care institution in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Data on maternal demographic characteristics was collected by questionnaire. In three trimesters, 3-day 24-hour dietary recall method was applied to collect dietary intakes data, with the information of docosahexaenoic acid(DHA) supplement intake being collected by questionnaire. The intakes and sources of daily fat and fatty acids in three trimesters were calculated using the National Nutrient Database of USDA and China Food Composition Tables(6th edition). The intake levels of fat and fatty acids were evaluated according to 2013 Chinese Dietary Reference Intakes. The study showed that the intakes of total fat and fatty acids increased during pregnancy. The mean intake of total daily fat was 64.8 g/d, 81.2 g/d, 88.5 g/d in three trimesters, respectively. The proportion of energy from total fat >30%E during three trimesters were 67.7%, 77.6%, 82.9%, respectively. The proportions of energy from saturated fatty acids(SFA) were 7.9%E, 8.9%E, 9.7%E, and those higher than 10%E were 20.9%, 31.9%, 44.7% in three trimesters, respectively. The proportions of energy from monounsaturated fatty acids(MUFA) were 12.9%E, 13.5%E, 14.2%E, and the proportions of energy from polyunsaturated fatty acids(PUFA) were 8.5%E, 8.4%E, 8.8%E in three trimesters, respectively. The proportion of DHA intake meeting recommendation(200 mg/d) in three trimesters were 3.6%, 21.7%, 21.1%, respectively. The radio of SFA, MUFA and PUFA(S∶M∶P) was 1∶1.6∶1.1 in the early trimester, and S∶M∶P was 1∶1.5∶1 in the second trimester and third trimester. Total fat and MUFA mainly came from edible oil and meat, and PUFA mainly came from edible oil and nuts. SFA mainly came from meat and milk, and the contribution of milk to SFA increased during pregnancy. The excessive intakes of total fat and SFA and the inadequate intake of DHA among pregnant women in Chengdu deserve attention.

A healthy dietary pattern with a low inflammatory potential reduces the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

PurposeAn optimal diet for lowering the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is still to be defined, but may comprise of nutrient intakes, dietary patterns, diet quality, and eating frequency. This study was designed to investigate the contribution of diet in developing GDM in a comprehensive way.MethodsThe dietary intake of overweight or obese women, a risk group for GDM (n = 351), was assessed using 3-day food diaries and diet quality questionnaires in early pregnancy. Eating frequency and nutrient intakes were calculated, and dietary patterns identified using principal component analysis. The inflammatory potential of the diet was determined by calculating the dietary inflammatory index (DII®) and energy-adjusted DII (E-DII™). GDM was diagnosed with an oral glucose tolerance test at 24–28 gestational weeks.ResultsHigher adherence to ‘healthier dietary pattern’ characterized by consumptions of vegetables and rye bread associated with a reduced risk of GDM (adjusted OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.11–0.70). Higher E-DII score, indicating pro-inflammatory diet, was associated with a 27% higher risk of GDM (adjusted OR 1.27; 95% CI 1.08–1.49) for each E-DII point. In the evaluation of nutrient intakes, total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFAs), and trans fatty acids were higher and fiber lower in women developing GDM compared to women not developing GDM (all p < 0.05). Intakes of total fat, SFAs, and trans fatty acids were also significant predictors for GDM (all p < 0.05).ConclusionsThe results emphasize the importance of an overall healthy diet and limitation of foods with SFAs, and other nutrients with a high inflammatory potential in reducing the risk of GDM.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01922791, August 14, 2013.

Associations between saturated fatty acids from different dietary sources and cardiovascular disease risk in 114,285 UK Biobank study participants

Abstract Background Previous studies suggest that different foods rich in saturated fatty acids (SFA), particularly meat and dairy, have diverging directions of association with risks of total cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CVD subtypes.(1,2) Purpose To investigate the associations between SFA from different dietary sources and risks of total CVD, ischaemic heart disease (IHD), and stroke. Methods We analysed data on 114,285 UK Biobank participants who had completed ≥2 24-h dietary assessments and were free of CVD at the date of the latest 24-h dietary assessment. Risks of incident (non-fatal and fatal) total CVD, IHD and stroke by intakes of SFA from different sources were estimated using multivariable Cox regressions. Additional models assessed the role of body mass index (BMI) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) as potential mediators. We also estimated the associations between modelled isoenergetic substitution of 5% energy from SFA from meat with SFA from dairy, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates from whole grains and carbohydrates from fruit and vegetables, and risk of CVD outcomes. A false discovery rate controlling procedure was used to account for multiple testing. Results Over a median 8.5 years of follow-up, there were 4,365, 3,394, and 1,041 cases of total CVD, IHD and stroke, respectively. There were no significant associations between total SFA intake and CVD outcomes. SFA from meat was positively associated with total CVD (hazard ratio for each 5% of energy, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.05–1.35) and IHD (1.21; 1.05–1.39) risk independently of lifestyle and cardiovascular risk factors. However, the estimates were attenuated and non-significant for both total CVD (1.11; 0.98–1.26) and IHD (1.12; 0.97–1.29) after adjustment for BMI. SFA from dairy was inversely associated with IHD risk (0.89; 0.82–0.96) in the multivariable model, however this finding was also attenuated after adjustment for BMI and did not pass correction for multiple testing (0.91; 0.84 to 0.98). Modelled replacement of 5% of energy from SFA from meat with carbohydrates from whole grains or carbohydrates from fruit and vegetables were associated with lower risk of stroke in the multivariable model (0.86; 0.78–0.94 &amp; 0.86; 0.78–0.95, respectively) and the model adjusted for BMI and LDL-C (0.87; 0.79–0.96 &amp; 0.86; 0.78–0.95, respectively). Conclusion(s) SFA from meat was associated with a higher risk of total CVD and IHD, while SFA from dairy was associated with lower risk of IHD, although BMI seemed to account for a large proportion of these associations. It is possible that diverging associations of SFA from different sources with CVD risk may explain the overall null association with total SFA observed in this study and some previous observational studies. Randomised controlled trials are needed to confirm whether replacing SFA from meat by carbohydrate from wholegrains or fruit and vegetables may be beneficial in reducing stroke risk. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): Clarendon Fund and Jesus College Clarendon Old Members' AwardJesus College Graduate Scholarship

Increasing trends in dietary total fat and fatty acid intake among Korean children: using the 2007-2017 national data.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe prevalence of obesity has been increasing in Korean children. As an unhealthy diet is known as one of the major determinants of childhood obesity, assessing and monitoring dietary fat intake of children is needed.SUBJECTS/METHODSThis analysis included 9,998 children aged 3–11 yrs from the 2007–2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Dietary data were obtained from a single 24-h dietary recall. Intakes of total fat and fatty acids, including saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA), and n-6 fatty acid (n-6 FA) were evaluated as the absolute amount (g) and proportion of energy from each fatty acid (% of energy). The total fat and SFA intake were also assessed according to compliance with dietary guidelines. Linear trends in the dietary fats intake across the survey period were tested using multiple regression models.RESULTSTotal fat intake significantly increased from 38.5 g (20.3% of energy) to 43.4 g (23.3% of energy) from 2007 to 2017. This increase was mainly accounted for the increases in intakes of SFA (7.2% to 8.4% of energy) and MUFA (6.2% to 7.5% of energy). PUFA intake increased from 4.4 to 4.7% of energy during the 11-yrs period: from 0.57 to 0.63% of energy for n-3 FA and from 3.8 to 4.1% of energy for n-6 FA. The proportions of children who consumed amounts exceeding the dietary guidelines for total fat and SFA significantly increased from 2007 to 2017, with increases from 9.8% to 17.4% for total fat and from 36.9% to 50.9% for SFA.CONCLUSIONSProminent increasing trends in the consumption of total fat and SFA but tiny change in n-3 FA intake were observed in Korean children. The healthy intake of dietary fats should be emphasized in this population.

Threshold Effects of Total Copper Intake on Cognitive Function in US Older Adults and the Moderating Effect of Fat and Saturated Fatty Acid Intake

BackgroundEvidence for a relationship between total copper intake and cognition is lacking, and few studies have assessed the moderating effect of dietary fat and saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake on this relationship. ObjectiveOur aim was to explore the curvilinear association between total copper intake and cognitive function in older adults, and to clarify the moderating effect of dietary fat and SFA intake on the association. DesignThis was a cross-sectional analysis of data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2011-2014. ParticipantsThe analysis included 2,483 participants aged 60 years and older. Main outcome measuresCognitive function was evaluated by the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) Word Learning subtest, the Animal Fluency Test, and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). Statistical analyses performedSmooth curve fitting and two-piecewise linear regression models were performed to address the nonlinear association between total copper intake and cognitive function. Multivariable quadratic regression models and analyses stratified by total fat or SFA intake were used to assess the effects of the interaction between copper and fat intake and between copper and SFA intake on cognitive function. ResultsThere was a nonlinear association between total copper intake and cognitive test scores. The inflection point of copper was 0.8 mg/d for the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease Word Learning subtest and 1.4 mg/d for both the Animal Fluency test and the DSST. When copper intake was below the inflection point, positive associations were apparent for copper intake and Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease Word Learning subtest scores (β = 3.9; 95% CI 1.2 to 6.5), Animal Fluency test scores (β = 1.7, 95% CI .9 to 2.6), and DSST scores (β = 6.0, 95% CI 3.8 to 8.3). When copper intake was above the inflection point, a nonsignificant downward trend was found. Interactive effects between total copper and total fat intake (P interaction = .000) and between total copper and SFA intake (P interaction = .011) on the DSST scores were observed. In the low fat intake and low SFA intake groups, DSST scores first increased and then decreased with increasing copper. However, in the high fat intake and high SFA intake groups, DSST scores first increased and then flattened with increasing copper. ConclusionsThe present study suggests a nonlinear association between copper intake and cognitive function and identifies threshold effects of copper intake on cognitive function. Copper intake below the inflection point was positively and independently associated with cognitive function. High fat and high SFA intake may protect older adults against a decline in DSST scores related to high copper intake.

Assessment of dietary intakes of total fat and fatty acids for residents in China in 2015–2018

The contents of 62 fatty acids, including saturated fatty acids (SFA) and trans fatty acids (TFA) in 192 composites from the 6th (2015–2018) Chinese Total Diet Study (TDS) were determined using gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionization detector (FID). The contents of total fat, SFA, and TFA varied greatly among various food categories with meats recording the highest level. The TFA intake for adult males was 0.19 ± 0.10 percentage of total energy intake (% E) within an range of 0.08−0.42% E, which was lower than the maximum (1% E) recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), while the intakes of total fat and SFA were 29.51 ± 6.01 % E and 7.01 ± 1.95 % E respectively. Comparing to the 5th Chinese TDS, the intakes of SFA and TFA, which were statistically significant, had been reduced by 8.1 % and 30.18 %, indicating the dietary variations for Chinese.

Coronary artery calcification and dietary intake in asymptomatic men.

Dietary factors may influence the process of atherosclerosis and coronary artery calcification (CAC). This study assessed CAC and its association with dietary intake in asymptomatic men. We evaluated 150 asymptomatic men with mean age of 58.2±5.3 years. The dietary intake was assessed by the Food Consumption Register method. CAC was measured through multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and assessed in accordance with the Agatston score. Modified Poisson regression model was used to estimate the effects of intake of different nutrients that are prevalent in moderate/severe CAC, adjusted for calorie intake and CAC risk factors by means of prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals [95%CI]. An association was found between the intake of some nutrients and moderate/severe CAC. Lower carbohydrate intake (P=0.021) and higher lipid intake (P=0.006) were associated with moderate/severe CAC. After adjustment, the nutrients associated with the prevalence of moderate/severe CAC were carbohydrates (P=0.040), lipids (P=0.005), and saturated fatty acids (SFA) (P=0.013). A 1% increase in lipids and SFA intake caused an increase of 4% [95%CI: 1-7%] and 8% [95%CI: 2-14%] in the prevalence of moderate/severe CAC, respectively. A 1% increase of carbohydrate intake led to a 2% decrease in the likelihood of moderate/severe CAC [95%CI: 1-4%]. These conclusions showed that the higher intake of total lipids and SFA was associated with higher CAC scores, whereas higher carbohydrate intake was associated with lower CAC scores in asymptomatic men.

Interaction between Metabolic Genetic Risk Score and Dietary Fatty Acid Intake on Central Obesity in a Ghanaian Population.

Obesity is a multifactorial condition arising from the interaction between genetic and lifestyle factors. We aimed to assess the impact of lifestyle and genetic factors on obesity-related traits in 302 healthy Ghanaian adults. Dietary intake and physical activity were assessed using a 3 day repeated 24 h dietary recall and global physical activity questionnaire, respectively. Twelve single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were used to construct 4-SNP, 8-SNP and 12-SNP genetic risk scores (GRSs). The 4-SNP GRS showed significant interactions with dietary fat intakes on waist circumference (WC) (Total fat, Pinteraction = 0.01; saturated fatty acids (SFA), Pinteraction = 0.02; polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), Pinteraction = 0.01 and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), Pinteraction = 0.01). Among individuals with higher intakes of total fat (>47 g/d), SFA (>14 g/d), PUFA (>16 g/d) and MUFA (>16 g/d), individuals with ≥3 risk alleles had a significantly higher WC compared to those with <3 risk alleles. This is the first study of its kind in this population, suggesting that a higher consumption of dietary fatty acid may have the potential to increase the genetic susceptibility of becoming centrally obese. These results support the general dietary recommendations to decrease the intakes of total fat and SFA, to reduce the risk of obesity, particularly in individuals with a higher genetic predisposition to central obesity.

Impact of Beef Consumption on Saturated Fat Intake in the United States Adult Population: Insights from Modeling the Influences of Bovine Genetics and Nutrition

Abstract Objectives Beef, while a prominent source of high-quality protein in the American diet, is a source of saturated fat. Beef production practices, such as breed selection and nutrition regimens, can influence the nutritional value of meat by reducing the saturated fatty acids (SFA) content. Thus, we sought to determine the extent to which implementing these practices reduces population-level SFA intake to meet the Dietary Guideline for Americans (DGA) recommendation of ≤10% en. Methods Using reported intakes from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001–2016, we determined the contribution of food types to total SFA intake. From these data, nutritional modeling methods were used in which the current fatty acid profile of beef was replaced with that from two different breeds (Angus, the predominant breed in the U.S., and Wagyu, a breed with lower SFA content) and three nutrition regimens (pasture-raised, 15% flaxseed supplementation, and 35% wet distiller's grain (WDG) supplementation) to estimate the contribution of each beef type to total SFA intake in the U.S. adult population. Four levels of replacement were compared - 10%, 25%, 50%, 100%. Results Daily per capita SFA intake was 10.9% en (10.8–11.0% en, 95% CI). Beef was the third greatest contributor (15%) to per capita SFA intake, behind grain (29%) and dairy (19%) dishes. In general, men consumed more beef fat than women (12.0 g vs. 6.6 g, respectively). SFA intake, as a percentage of total energy intake (% en), from beef was 2.1% en (2.1–2.2% en, 95% CI) in men and 1.6% en (1.6–1.7% en, 95% CI) in women. For each modeled beef, SFA intake decreased with each increase in replacement level. At 100% replacement, SFA intake was reduced by 0.5% (Angus), 2.8% (Wagyu), 1.9% (pasture-raised), 4.1% (15% flaxseed), and 2.6% (35% WDG). Conclusions Data from this modeling study indicate that decreasing the SFA content of beef through breed selection and nutrition regimens can result in a per capita reduction in SFA intake in the American population. However, modeled SFA consumption remained greater (c. 10.5–10.7% en) than DGA recommended intakes in all age and gender groups. These results demonstrate the importance for Americans to reduce SFA intake from all sources, including beef, to meet daily intake recommendations. Funding Sources United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service.

Saturated Fatty Acid Intake Is Associated With Increased Inflammation, Conversion of Kynurenine to Tryptophan, and Delta-9 Desaturase Activity in Healthy Humans.

Saturated fat ingestion has previously been linked to increases in inflammation. However the relationship between saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake and the kynureine:tryptophan ratio ([Kyn]:[Trp]), a marker of inflammation, has not been previously investigated. This study evaluated in healthy, middle aged, individuals (men = 48, women = 52), potential relationships between SFA intake, red blood cell (RBC) membrane SFAs and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), the [Kyn]:[Trp] ratio, C-reactive protein (CRP), TNF-α and Δ9 desaturase activity. [Kyn]:[Trp] was positively associated with increases in Total fat (P = .034) intake, including Total SFA (P = .029) and Total MUFA (P = .042) intakes. Unexpectedly the [Kyn]:[Trp] ratio was inversely associated with the percentage of Total SFA (P = .004) and positively associated with percentage of Total MUFA (P = .012) present in the RBC membrane. We found a positive association between Δ9 desaturase activity, responsible for the desaturation of a various SFAs to MUFAs, and [Kyn]:[Trp] (P = .008). [Kyn]:[Trp] was also positively associated with CRP (P = .044), however no significant relationship between [Kyn]:[Trp] and TNF-α was found. This study shows for the first time that SFA consumption increases inflammatory pathways linked to increased tryptophan to kynurenine conversion, even in healthy humans. Our data also suggests that SFA linked increases in inflammation occur concomitantly with an upregulation of Δ9 desaturase activity resulting in increased desaturation of SFA substrates to their MUFA derivatives.

Interesterified fats: What are they and why are they used? A briefing report from the Roundtable on Interesterified Fats in Foods

AbstractInteresterification rearranges the position of fatty acids within triacylglycerols, the main component of dietary fat, altering physical properties such as the melting point and providing suitable functionality for use in a range of food applications. Interesterified (IE) fats are one of a number of alternatives which have been adopted to reformulate products to remove fats containing trans fatty acids generated during partial hydrogenation, which are known to be detrimental to cardiovascular health. The use of IE fats can also reduce the saturated fatty acid (SFA) content of the final product (e.g. up to 20% in spreads), while maintaining suitable physical properties (e.g. melt profile). A novel analysis was presented during the roundtable which combined data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2012/2013–2013/2014) with expert industry knowledge of the IE fats typically used in food products, to provide the first known estimate of population intakes of IE fats among UK children and adults. IE fats were found to contribute approximately 1% of daily energy across all ages. The major contributors to overall IE fat intakes were fat spreads (~54%) and bakery products (~22%), as well as biscuits (~8%), dairy cream alternatives (~6%) and confectionery (~6%). Increasing use of IE fats could contribute towards reducing total SFA intakes in the population, but would depend on which food products were reformulated and their frequency of consumption among sub‐groups of the population. Studies comparing the effect of IE and non‐IE fats on markers of lipid metabolism have not shown any consistent differences, either in the fasted or in the postprandial state, suggesting a neutral effect of IE fats on cardiovascular disease risk. However, these studies did not use the type of IE fats present in the food supply. This issue has been addressed in two studies by King's College London, which measured the postprandial response to a commercially relevant palm stearin/palm kernel (80:20) IE ‘hard stock’, although again no consistent effects of the IE fat on markers of lipid metabolism were found. Another study is currently investigating the same IE hard stock, consumed as a fat spread (blended with vegetable oil), and will measure a broader range of postprandial cardiometabolic risk factors. However, further long‐term trials using commercially relevant IE fats are needed. Subsequent to the roundtable, a consumer survey of UK adults (n = 2062; aged 18+ years) suggested that there is confusion about the health effects of dietary fats/fatty acids, including trans fats and partially hydrogenated fats. This may indicate that providing evidence‐based information to the public on dietary fats and health could be helpful, including the reformulation efforts of food producers and retailers to improve the fatty acid profile of some commonly consumed foods.

Consumption and Sources of Saturated Fatty Acids According to the 2019 Canada Food Guide: Data from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey.

The 2019 revised version of Canada’s Food Guide (CFG) recommends limiting the consumption of processed foods that are high in saturated fatty acids (SFA). Yet, the contributions of each CFG group to the total SFA intake of Canadians are not specifically known. The objectives of this study were to quantify the total SFA intake of Canadians, determine the sources of SFA consumed by Canadian adults, and identify potential differences in these sources. A nation representative sample from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS – Nutrition 2015) was used for these analyses. Dietary intakes were measured using a single 24-h recall. Food sources of SFA were classified according to the revised 2019 CFG categories. We have also examined the contribution of foods not included in these three categories to total SFA intake. Among Canadian adults, total SFA contributed to 10.4 ± 0.1% (SE) of total energy intake (E). The “Protein foods” (47.7 ± 0.5% with 23.2 ± 0.4% from milk and alternatives and 24.5 ± 0.4% from meats and alternatives) and “All other foods” (44.2 ± 0.5%) categories were the main sources of total SFA intake. Few differences in SFA sources were identified between sexes, age groups, education levels, and body mass index (BMI) categories. These data show that the mean SFA consumption is greater than the 10% E cut-off previously proposed in Canada. Future studies should examine which food substitution is most likely to contribute to a greater reduction in SFA intake at the population level.

Saturated Fat Intake Is Associated with Lung Function in Individuals with Airflow Obstruction: Results from NHANES 2007⁻2012.

Nutritional status is a well-recognized prognostic indicator in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); however, very little is known about the relationship between lung function and saturated fat intake. We used data from the cross-sectional National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) to assess the relationship between saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake and lung function in the general US adult population. Adults in NHANES (2007–2012) with pre-bronchodilator spirometry measurements and dietary SFA intake were included. Primary outcomes were lung function including forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), FEV1, forced vital capacity (FVC), FEV1/FVC ratio, percent predicted FEV1 and percent predicted FVC. Multivariable regression models in the general population as well as those with spirometry-defined airflow obstruction were used to assess the relationship between lung function measurements and dietary SFA intake after adjustment for confounders. 11,180 eligible participants were included in this study. Univariate analysis revealed a statistically significant positive association between total SFA intake and lung function outcomes; however, these relationships were attenuated after adjustment for covariates. A secondary analysis of individuals with spirometry-defined airflow obstruction (FEV1/FVC < 0.7) revealed that a lower intake of SFA was associated with reduced FEV1 (β = −126.4, p = 0.04 for quartile 1 vs. quartile 4), FVC (β = −165.8. p = 0.01 for quartile 1 vs. quartile 4), and percent predicted FVC (β = −3.3. p = 0.04 for quartile 1 vs. quartile 4), after adjustment for relevant confounders. No associations were observed for the FEV1/FVC ratio and percent predicted FEV1. It is possible that characteristics such as food source and fatty acid chain length may influence associations between saturated fatty acid intake and health outcomes.

Saturated Fatty Acid Intake Is Associated with Total Mortality in a Nationwide Cohort Study

Dietary intakes of total and specific types of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in relation to total mortality remain largely unknown in China. We assessed the associations of total and individual SFA intakes with total mortality in a Chinese nationwide population. This prospective analysis included 7888 women and 6495 men, aged >20 y, from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (1989-2011). Cumulative mean of SFA intake was calculated based on 3 d of 24-h records in each round of the survey. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate HR and 95% CI. There were 1011 deaths during a median of 14 y of follow-up. In isocaloric nutrient density models that replace total carbohydrates, intakes of total SFAs and even-chain SFAs were associated with higher total mortality in women but not in men. Compared with the lowest quartiles, the HRs (95% CIs) in the highest quartiles were 1.65 (1.03, 2.62) for total SFAs (P-trend=0.042) and 1.83 (1.13, 2.94) for even-chain SFAs (P-trend=0.016) in women. Intake of odd-chain SFAs was associated with lower total mortality both in men [HR (95% CI): 0.64 (0.47, 0.87); P-trend=0.01] and in women [HR (95% CI): 0.59 (0.42, 0.84); P-trend=0.0013]. Moreover, intake of medium-chain SFAs was linked with lower total mortality in men [HR (95% CI): 0.64 (0.44, 0.93); P-trend=0.013]. However, isocalorically replacing 1% of energy from unsaturated fatty acids with even-chain SFAs was associated with higher total mortality in men [HRs (95% CIs): 1.08 (0.97, 1.20) and 1.39 (1.20, 1.60) for replacing PUFAs and MUFAs, respectively]. Total SFA and even-chain SFA intake was associated with higher total mortality in women, whereas intake of odd-chain SFAs was related to lower total mortality in both sexes. This analysis of cohort was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03281512.

Role of Fatty Acids Intake in Generalized Vitiligo.

Background:Previous studies indicated the effect of fat on autoimmune diseases. The present study was aimed to investigate the association between fat intake and vitiligo.Methods:This case–control study was conducted in the Skin and Leishmania Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran. Intakes of fatty acids were examined for their relation to risk of vitiligo among 100 cases and 110 controls. We included patients who suffered from generalized or localized vitiligo for <5 years that was approved by a dermatologist via the Vitiligo European Task Force criteria and the vitiligo area scoring index. Fat intake was assessed through individual interviews by a standardized food frequency questionnaire.Results:Vitiligo group consumed more saturated fatty acid (SFA) and less eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid than control group, while other fatty acids were not significantly different among two groups (P > 0.05). Crude analysis showed that total fat (odds ratio [OR] = 3.33, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.46–7.58) and SFA (OR = 2.22, 95% CI: 1.04–4.90) intakes were associated with an increased risk of vitiligo (for highest quartile vs. lowest quartile). Results demonstrated a decrease in the risk of vitiligo for those within the highest quartile of monounsaturated fatty acids intake (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.18–0.92). However, this relationship disappeared after adjustment for confounders as energy, age, sex, and body mass index, except for total fat (OR = 2.84, 95% CI: 1.63–5.44). Crude and adjusted analyses for polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol intake were not statistically significant.Conclusions:Total-fat content of the diet had more impressive role than the specific subclasses of fats on the incidence risk of vitiligo. High-fat diet escalated the vitiligo risk. Regarding the role of fats on skin autoimmune diseases especially vitiligo, future studies are crucial.