Instrumental Incentives Research Articles

A Reinforcement Meta-Learning framework of executive function and information demand

Gathering information is crucial for maximizing fitness, but requires diverting resources from searching directly for primary rewards to actively exploring the environment. Optimal decision-making thus maximizes information while reducing effort costs, but little is known about the neuro-computational implementation of this tradeoff. We present a Reinforcement Meta-Learning (RML) computational model that solves the trade-off between the value and costs of gathering information. We implement the RML in a biologically plausible architecture that links catecholaminergic neuromodulators, the medial prefrontal cortex and topographically organized visual maps and show that it accounts for neural and behavioral findings on information demand motivated by instrumental incentives and intrinsic utility. Moreover, the utility function used by the RML, encoded by dopamine, is an approximation of variational free energy. Thus, the RML presents a biologically plausible mechanism for coordinating motivational, executive and sensory systems generate visual information gathering policies that minimize free energy.

Uncertainty modulates visual maps during noninstrumental information demand

Animals are intrinsically motivated to obtain information independently of instrumental incentives. This motivation depends on two factors: a desire to resolve uncertainty by gathering accurate information and a desire to obtain positively-valenced observations, which predict favorable rather than unfavorable outcomes. To understand the neural mechanisms, we recorded parietal cortical activity implicated in prioritizing stimuli for spatial attention and gaze, in a task in which monkeys were free (but not trained) to obtain information about probabilistic non-contingent rewards. We show that valence and uncertainty independently modulated parietal neuronal activity, and uncertainty but not reward-related enhancement consistently correlated with behavioral sensitivity. The findings suggest uncertainty-driven and valence-driven information demand depend on partially distinct pathways, with the former being consistently related to parietal responses and the latter depending on additional mechanisms implemented in downstream structures.

Social Norms Moderate the Effect of Tax System on Tax Evasion: Evidence from a Large-Scale Survey Experiment

In this study, we reconcile conflicting findings from the extant literature on the impact of tax system parameters on tax noncompliance. We argue that social norms play a role of heuristics facilitating tax payers’ response to the instrumental incentives posed by the systemic parameters, such as tax rate and penalties for evasion, and thus moderate the effect of those parameters on willingness to evade taxes. Relying on a unique survey experiment conducted in fourteen countries of Central-Eastern Europe, we demonstrate two types of a conditioning effect of norms. First, the impact of tax rates on respondents’ propensity for tax evasion is moderated by the perceived norms of the society at large (descriptive norms). In particular, an increasing tax rate lowers the probability of evasion as long as one views “most others” as honest taxpayers, which highlights the importance of equitability (fairness) concerns for tax compliance decisions. In contrast, the impact of punishment is moderated by the perceived norms of one’s immediate reference group (subjective norms). Strong subjective compliance norms tend to effectively replace penalties as a mechanism discouraging tax evasion, suggesting that the deterrent effect of a penalty can be entirely suppressed when subjective norms are strong. These findings have important implications for the understanding of tax compliance decisions under different formal and informal regimes.

Der illegale Verkauf verschreibungspflichtiger Medikamente zur kognitiven Leistungssteigerung – Eine Vignetten-basierte Studie rationaler und normativer Erklärungsgründe

The illicit sale of prescription drugs for enhancing cognitive performance is a criminal act which has hardly been studied although the consumption of these drugs by healthy people has numerous negative individual and social consequences. In this study, we scrutinize the decision to sale those drugs based on assumptions of various criminological rational choice models, self-control theory, social norms, as well as the Model of Frame Selection (MFS) and the Situational Action Theory (SAT). Thereby, we also consider interactions between instrumental incentives, self-control and norms. To investigate decisions regarding the illegal sale of performance enhancing drugs, we used a web-based survey among students at four German universities (N=1,698). Each respondent received randomly one out of 900 vignettes, in each case describing a hypothetical sales situation concerning the illegal and financially rewarding transmission of medications to enhance concentration between students. The descriptions have been randomly varied with respect to the sales profits and the severity of punishments and their respective probabilities. Moreover, the degree of self-control and internalized norms regarding illegal sales have been assessed. The results, that are derived from double hurdle models, show that, especially, internalized norms as well as the severity of punishment reduce the willingness of selling, while low self-control and increasing profits increase this willingness. In addition, a negative interaction effect between low self-control and the severity of punishment shows that a more severe punishment leads to more deterrence when self-control is lower (respectively that with more sever punishments, the impact of self-control decreases). Although the results support the theoretical assumptions only partially, we can show that internalized norms significantly influence the perception of criminal behavior while the benefits of such behavior and self-control seem to operate in a downstream deliberation process.

Genuine links and useful passports: evaluating strategic uses of citizenship

ABSTRACTLiberal citizenship is shaped by the legacies of Athens (democracy) and Rome (legal rights) but operates within a Westphalian framework where citizenship serves to assign mutually recognised responsibilities for individuals to states. I argue that this Westphalian dimension requires that the rules for determining citizenship reflect genuine links between individuals and states and explain why birthright principles and toleration of multiple citizenship are compatible with a genuine link conception. In this conception, citizenship has both instrumental and identity value. The paper argues that liberal trends in citizenship reform generally weaken instrumental incentives for naturalisation. These effects are, however, counterbalanced by enhanced opportunities and interests in mobility rights that strengthen instrumental interests in multiple citizenship among immigrants, among populations in less developed countries and among wealthy elites. Only the latter two trends can potentially undermine a genuine link norm and, if they prevail, replace the Westphalian allocation of citizenship with a global market. I see little evidence that this is going to happen any time soon.

Sticky votes

Are vote choices instrumental or expressive? This paper studies the effects of the ban in the Basque Country of a political party, Batasuna, which continued to contest the elections after its ban by calling for a null vote, that has expressive but no instrumental value. Exploiting the heterogeneity in the pre-ban presence of Batasuna and in the enforcement of the ban across municipalities and elections, I find that null voters are two-thirds of the potential Batasuna voters in a regular election, indicating that expressive motivations alone explain two-thirds of the votes for this party. Null votes lower the electoral threshold and raise the instrumental incentives for the remaining voters to vote for smaller parties, but the behavioral effect of the ban on the fragmentation of city councils is close to zero. In a region with salient identity politics, the results are consistent with prevalent expressive voting, in contrast with the common assumption of purely instrumental voters.

Моральная экономика: почему хорошие стимулы не заменят хороших граждан

The Moral Economy is based in part on Castle Lectures given by Prof. Samuel Bowles at Yale University that resulted from his concerns about the cultural effects of markets and incentives over 30 years. In his book, Bowles focuses on a new policy paradigm, which proposes switching from Homo economicus to an approach considering people as they are. According to Bowles, the latter approach makes synergy between incentives and constraints as well as the conjunction of ethical and other-regarding motivations possible. The author argues that only market economies that do not ignore their cultural background and the goodness of people are able to work properly. The Journal of Economic Sociology has published the first chapter, “The Problem with Homo Economicus,” in which the author tries to convince readers that the principle of Homo economicus is not a good baseline assumption for policy-making and business management for at least two reasons. First, instrumental incentives do not guarantee good government. Second, a policy, which relies on self-interested and amoral humans, creates conditions for the dominancy of this human behavior model in the real world. The author addresses a wide variety of philosophical, political, and economic literature to construct his arguments. The book is very easy to read thanks to the vivid examples and attractive anecdotes it contains.

Reconciling Different Views on Responsible Leadership: A Rationality-Based Approach

Business leaders are increasingly responsible for the societal and environmental impacts of their actions. Yet conceptual views on responsible leadership differ in their definitions and theoretical foundations. This study attempts to reconcile these diverse views and uncover the phenomenon from a business leader’s point of view. Based on rational egoism theory, this article proposes a formal mathematical model of responsible leadership that considers different types of incentives for stakeholder engagement. The analyses reveal that monetary and instrumental incentives are neither sufficient nor necessary for business leaders to consider societal and environmental stakeholder needs. Non-monetary and non-instrumental incentives, such as leaders’ values and authenticity, as well as their planning horizons, counterbalance pure monetary and instrumental orientations. The model in this article complements the growing body of research on responsible leadership by reconciling its various conceptual views and providing a foundation for future theory development and testing.

The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers

Cognitive enhancement (CE) is the pharmaceutical augmentation of mental abilities (e.g., learning or memory) without medical necessity. This topic has recently attracted widespread attention in scientific and social circles. However, knowledge regarding the mechanisms that underlie the decision to use CE medication is limited. To analyze these decisions, we used data from two online surveys of randomly sampled university teachers (N = 1,406) and students (N = 3,486). Each respondent evaluated one randomly selected vignette with regard to a hypothetical CE drug. We experimentally varied the characteristics of the drugs among vignettes and distributed them among respondents. In addition, the respondent’s internalization of social norms with respect to CE drug use was measured. Our results revealed that students were more willing to enhance cognitive performance via drugs than university teachers, although the overall willingness was low. The probability of side effects and their strength reduced the willingness to use CE drugs among students and university teachers, whereas higher likelihoods and magnitudes of CE increased this propensity. In addition, the internalized norm against CE drug use influenced decision making: Higher internalization decreased the willingness to use such medications. Students’ internalized norms more strongly affected CE abstinence compared with those of university teachers. Furthermore, internalized norms negatively interacted with the instrumental incentives for taking CE medication. This internalization limited the influence of and deliberation on instrumental incentives. This study is the first to provide empirical evidence regarding the importance of social norms and their influence on rational decision making with regard to CE. We identified previously undiscovered decision-making patterns concerning CE. Thus, this study provides insight into the motivators and inhibitors of CE drug use. These findings have implications for contending with CE behavior by highlighting the magnitude of potential side effects and by informing the debate regarding the ethics of CE use.

Department of State Rewards Program Update and Technical Corrections Act of 2012

For nearly three decades, the United States has offered monetary rewards designed to facilitate the apprehension and transfer for trial of suspects when their trial would directly advance American national interests. In the 1990s, for example, posters and matchbooks appeared across the Balkans with contact information available to anyone who might be willing to assist in the transfer of Slobodan Milošević or Radovan Karadžić to face charges before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugloslavia. In Congress’s view, this rewards program has helped to generate actionable intelligence that has prevented terrorist attacks, aided convictions of key suspects charged with participation in other acts of international terror, and served as “one of the most valuable assets the U.S. Government has in the fight against international terrorism.” In his public comments introducing this legislation, the United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes acknowledged that fourteen payments were made under existing legislation in the two years prior to passage of this bill, averaging $400,000 per person. Details remain classified of course, but the rewards have provided instrumental incentives in numerous high profile cases, inter alia, the arrest of the architect of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the deaths of Uday and Qusay Hussein at the hands of American military forces following the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Welsh-medium education and parental incentives – the case of the Rhymni Valley, Caerffili

According to the 2001 Census, there has been a substantial increase in the numbers of Welsh speakers aged 5–15 years, especially in south-east Wales. It is generally accepted that this increase can be largely attributed to the success of Welsh-medium education. Indeed, Welsh-medium education has long been seen as an effective language planning tool and language transmission sphere to transmit the Welsh language in Wales. The aim of this paper is to look at the main parental incentives for choosing Welsh-medium education in the Rhymni valley, Caerffili County. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used to gather information from parents from the ‘meithrin’ stage (Welsh-medium nursery) and from the primary and secondary school sectors. The main parental incentives in the Rhymni Valley were seen to be cultural, educational, economic and personal reasons and integrative rather than instrumental incentives that came to the forefront. Past studies have tended to emphasise economic reasons, but the findings of this present project indicate that cultural reasons were more predominant factors for parents in the Rhymni valley.

THE INTERPLAY OF MORAL NORMS AND INSTRUMENTAL INCENTIVES IN CRIME CAUSATION*

Rational choice theories (RCTs) of crime assume actors behave in an instrumental, outcome‐oriented way. Accordingly, individuals should weight the costs and benefits of criminal acts with subjective probabilities that these outcomes will occur. Previous studies either do not directly test this central hypothesis or else yield inconsistent results. We show that a meaningful test can be conducted only if a broader view is adopted that takes into account the interplay of moral norms and instrumental incentives. Such a view can be derived from the Model of Frame Selection (Kroneberg, 2005) and the Situational Action Theory of Crime Causation (Wikström, 2004). Based on these theories, we analyze the willingness to engage in shoplifting and tax fraud in a sample of 2,130 adults from Dresden, Germany. In line with our theoretical expectations, we find that only respondents who do not feel bound by moral norms show the kind of instrumental rationality assumed in RCTs of crime. Where norms have been strongly internalized, and in the absence of neutralizations, instrumental incentives are irrelevant.

Channel Incentives as Unilateral and Bilateral Governance Processes

The authors investigate channel incentives as extra-contractual governance processes that maintain and extend marketing channel relationships. More specifically, instrumental incentives are monetary-based payments made by a manufacturer in a unilateral channel arrangement to motivate distributor compliance, while equity incentives are bilateral expectations of fair treatment that motivate both parties to continue to cooperate with one another. A model of the antecedents and performance consequences of channel incentives is conceptualized and tested on 314 marketing channel relationships using a structural equation modeling methodology. The findings support the conceptual model and suggest that unique facets of the channel relationship explain the type of incentive mechanism in use.

Policy lessons from the evolution of a community-based approach to wildlife management, Kunene Region, Namibia

A community-based natural resource management project in the arid Kunene Region of Namibia has evolved over time from a focus on halting poaching to ensuring community benefit from wildlife and ultimately to communities as proprietors of the wildlife resource. A Namibian NGO has used consistent and persistent ‘light-touch facilitation’ to assist communities to overcome problems in forming common property resource management institutions to manage the wildlife and conform with new government legislation. Pragmatic approaches to resolving conflicts over land and resources and to disputes between competing interest groups have enabled communities to make progress. Success has depended upon the intrinsic value communities place upon wildlife as much as instrumental incentives. Relations with the private sector have been governed by the degree of proprietorship enjoyed by communities. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE ATTITUDES

THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE ATTITUDES