Palladium Insertion Research Articles

Palladium Complexes of N-Methylcorroles.

Alkylation of one of the inner-core nitrogen atoms is one possible approach to obtain dianionic corrole ligands, suitable for the coordination of divalent metal ions, such as PdII . Inner-core N-methylation can be obtained by treating the corrole with CH3 I, but the reaction conditions should be optimized to limit the formation of the dimethylated derivative. Two regioisomers, the N-21 and the N-22 methyl derivatives are obtained from the reaction, with the first product achieved in a higher amount. Structural characterization of the reaction products evidenced the distortion induced by the introduction of the methyl groups; the N-methylcorroles are chiral compounds, and the enantiomers were separated by chromatography, with their absolute configuration assigned by ECD computation. Palladium insertion was achieved in the case of monosubstituted corroles, but not with the dimethylated macrocycle; X-ray characterization of the complexes showed the distortion of the macrocycles. The Pd complexes do not show luminescence emission, but are able to produce singlet oxygen upon irradiation. The PdII complexes were also inserted in human serum albumin (HSA) and dispersed in water; in this case, the protein protects the corroles from photobleaching, and a switch from the type II to the type I mechanism in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is observed.

Bispalladium(II) Complexes of di‐p‐Pyrirubyrin Derivatives as Promising Near‐Infrared Photoacoustic Dyes

AbstractThe insertion of palladium(II) into di‐p‐pyrirubyrin results in mutually convertible bimetallic complexes. Post‐synthetic functionalization of one of them yielded bispalladium(II) dioxo‐di‐p‐pyrirubyrin and, after demetallation, dioxo‐di‐p‐pyrirubyrin, introducing for the first time the α,β′‐pyridin‐2‐one unit into the macrocyclic frame. Bispalladium(II) di‐p‐pyrirubyrin 6, bispalladium(II) dioxo‐di‐p‐pyrirubyrin 9, and dioxo‐di‐p‐pyrirubyrin 10 absorb and emit light around 1000 nm and are characterized by high photostability. Thus, they are promising candidates for near‐infrared photoacoustic dyes, ideally targeting (9) the wavelength of Yb‐based fiber lasers. The incorporation of an α,β′‐pyridine moiety into expanded porphyrins opens a highly interesting area of research due to the attractive optical and coordination properties of the resulting molecules.

Bispalladium(II) Complexes of di-p-Pyrirubyrin Derivatives as Promising Near-Infrared Photoacoustic Dyes.

Incorporation of α,β'-pyridine moiety into expanded porphyrins opens a highly interesting area of research due to created the molecules' attractive optical and coordination properties. The insertion of palladium(II) into di-p-pyrirubyrin, results in mutually convertible bimetallic complexes. Post-synthetic functionalization of one of them yielded bispalladium(II) dioxo-di-p-pyrirubyrin and, after demetallation, dioxo-di-p-pyrirubyrin, introducing for the first time, the α,β'-pyridin-2-one unit into the macrocyclic frame. Bispalladium(II) di-p-pyrirubyrin 6, bispalladium(II) dioxo-di-p-pyrirubyrin 9, and dioxo-di-p-pyrirubyrin 10 absorb and emit light around 1000 nm and are characterized by high photostability. Thus, they are promising candidates for near-infrared photoacoustic dyes, ideally targeting (9) the wavelength of Yb-based fiber lasers.

Electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds of polycaprolactone containing binary ions of Pd/vanadate doped hydroxyapatite for biomedical applications

In this work, manipulation of scaffold compositions is executed, aiming to the enhancement of wound healing via the acceleration of the curing process and inhibition of bacterial growth. The study includes powder phase, palladium/vanadate hydroxyapatite (Pd/V-HAP), and fibrous phase (Pd/V-HAP@PCL) preparation in different Pd(II) ions contents. The structural inspection with palladium insertion is inspected for powder and nanofibrous compositions using XRD, while the morphological behavior was examined by the FESEM technique. The porous structure is detected clearly in the highest palladium composition in powder phase compositions, besides a significant reduction in fiber filament diameter from 4 μm to 1.5 μm. The roughness average of 0.8Pd/V-HAP@PCL shows detectable growing with palladium insertion reaching 23.6 and 103.7 nm for powder and fibrous phase, respectively. The narrowest contact angle is introduced by 0.8Pd/V-HAP@PCL scaffold with 88±3°, while it presented the highest cell viability with 95.1 ± 2%. Additionally, the 0.8Pd/V-HAP@PCL nanofibrous composite shows the maximum inhibition zones with 19.6 ± 0.8 and 18.7 ± 0.9 mm against E. coli and S. aureus microorganisms, respectively. It could be added that the cellular growth of fibroblasts cell line was observed via scanning microscope, where the spreading and the proliferation of cells increased upon the change of the compositions of nanofibers. The enlargement of the growing area of cells through the scaffold's surface might indicate the ability of these biomaterials for wound care potential applications.

Palladium Complexes of Corroles and Sapphyrins.

Palladium complexes of corrole and sapphyrin were prepared in high yield and fully characterized. The corrole provides a tetradentate/trianionic square planar coordination sphere for PdII , charge balanced by pyridinium. Both one and two PdII ions may be accommodated by the pentapyrrolic skeleton of the sapphyrin, and in each case the macrocycle acts as bidentate/monoanionic ligand and the inner-sphere square planar geometry is completed by allyl anions coordinated in an η3 fashion. NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography data analyses uncovered the presence of interesting stereoisomers due to the flexibility of the ally ligands and also the pyrrole ring(s) that is/are not involved in metal binding.

Experimental-Computational Synergy for Selective Pd(II)-Catalyzed C-H Activation of Aryl and Alkyl Groups.

C-H activation and functionalization are on the forefront of modern synthetic chemistry. Imagine if any C-H bond of a molecule could be converted to a C-X bond, where X is the target functionality-this would alter the synthetic blueprints for complex target molecules since it would provide novel disconnections in retrosynthetic analysis. Collaborations between many experimental and computational groups have led to rapid developments of new C-H functionalization methods. Our groups represent an example of this; we were brought together as part of the NSF-supported Center for Selective C-H Functionalization. Many examples of experimental-computational synergy for selective Pd(II)-catalyzed C-H activation of aryl and alkyl groups are described in this Account. We describe computations by the Houk group made in response to experimental stimuli by the Yu group. The first section discusses the experimental and computational investigations of oxazoline-directed stereoselective Pd(II)-catalyzed C(sp3)-H bond activation that occurs through the concerted metalation-deprotonation (CMD) pathway involving a monomeric Pd(II) complex. The second section involves two types of bidentate ligands, mono-N-protected amino acid (MPAA) and acetyl-protected aminoethyl quinoline (APAQ) ligands that promote the C-H activation reactions with the ligand as the internal base. In the MPAA-assisted remote C-H bond activation, the basic dianionic amidate ligand participates in the deprotonation of a specific C-H bond. This mechanism accounts for the improved reactivity and selectivity in C-H activation reactions with MPAA ligands. The chiral APAQ ligands enable asymmetric palladium insertion into prochiral C-H bonds on a single methylene carbon center. The dianionic amidate of the APAQ ligand acts as an intramolecular base to deprotonate the methylene C-H asymmetrically and facilitate chiral Pd-C bond formation. The origins of the dramatic differences of five-membered (relatively inactive) and six-membered (highly active) chelation in β-methylene C(sp3)-H activation reactions by a Pd(II) catalyst were explained with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. This is mainly due to the steric repulsions between the ArF group of the substrate and the quinoline group of the ligand. The steric repulsion between the ArF group of the substrate and the quinoline group of the APAQ ligand destabilizes the five-membered chelate transition structure, increasing the energy of the transition state. The third section discusses a mechanism involving a Pd-Ag heterodimeric complex intermediate in the template-directed, Pd(II)-catalyzed remote meta functionalization of toluene derivatives and benzoic acid derivatives. The nitrile directing group of the template coordinates with Ag while the Pd is placed adjacent to the meta-C-H bond in the transition state, leading to the observed high meta selectivity. The selective activation of remote meta-C-H bonds at various distances can be achieved by tuning the template. The dual role of AgOAc as both an oxidant and part of the heteronuclear active species in the mechanism involving PdAg(OAc)3 was determined by DFT calculations and is in accord with literature information about complexes. For the systems discussed in these three sections, the similarity is that they all proceed via the CMD mechanism. The differences lie in the proton acceptors and the active Pd species. Common CMD involves a monomeric Pd mechanism with acetate as the proton acceptor. Both MPAA and APAQ ligands react via monomeric Pd mechanisms with a ligand moiety (the amidate oxygen) as the proton acceptor. Nitrile-containing template-mediated meta-C-H activations proceed via a Pd-Ag heterodimeric mechanism, still with acetate as the proton acceptor. The interaction between our two groups, experts in experiment and computation, and the discoveries made possible by that interplay are highlighted in this Account.

Shaping Antiaromatic π-Systems by Metalation: Synthesis of a Bowl-Shaped Antiaromatic Palladium Norcorrole.

The synthesis of a bowl-shaped antiaromatic molecule was achieved through the deformation of a planar antiaromatic porphyrinic π-conjugation system by insertion of palladium into the small cavity of a metal-free norcorrole. The bowl-to-bowl inversion dynamics of the antiaromatic Pd-coordinated norcorrole was determined by variable-temperature 1 H NMR spectroscopy. The metal-free norcorrole was prepared from acid-induced demetalation of a copper norcorrole, which was obtained from the intramolecular coupling of a bis(diiododipyrrin) copper complex with copper thiophenecarboxylate.

Shaping Antiaromatic π‐Systems by Metalation: Synthesis of a Bowl‐Shaped Antiaromatic Palladium Norcorrole

AbstractThe synthesis of a bowl‐shaped antiaromatic molecule was achieved through the deformation of a planar antiaromatic porphyrinic π‐conjugation system by insertion of palladium into the small cavity of a metal‐free norcorrole. The bowl‐to‐bowl inversion dynamics of the antiaromatic Pd‐coordinated norcorrole was determined by variable‐temperature 1H NMR spectroscopy. The metal‐free norcorrole was prepared from acid‐induced demetalation of a copper norcorrole, which was obtained from the intramolecular coupling of a bis(diiododipyrrin) copper complex with copper thiophenecarboxylate.

Palladium-Catalyzed Decarboxylative Ortho-Acylation of Tertiary Benzamides with Arylglyoxylic Acids

A palladium-catalyzed ortho-acylation of tertiary benzamides using arylglyoxylic acids has been described. Unlike the palladium insertion reported to occur in the distorted N–C(O) amide bond of tertiary benzamides, the current study unveils ortho C–H palladation in acylic or cyclic N,N-dialkylbenzamides affording ortho-acylated tertiary benzamides in good to excellent yields. Our experimental study on the mechanism provides information on the tendency of the amide nitrogen toward weak coordination with palladium as opposed to oxygen. However, density functional theory calculations suggest coordination of amide oxygen to palladium, which makes the mechanism especially interesting. A Pd(II)/Pd(III) catalytic cycle and nucleophilic attack by the acyl radical rather than arylglyoxylate anion are supported by mechanistic studies.

Formation of α-chiral centers by asymmetric β-C(sp3)-H arylation, alkenylation, and alkynylation.

The enzymatic β-C-H hydroxylation of the feedstock chemical isobutyric acid has enabled the asymmetric synthesis of a wide variety of polyketides. The analogous transition metal-catalyzed enantioselective β-C-H functionalization of isobutyric acid-derived substrates should provide a versatile method for constructing useful building blocks with enantioenriched α-chiral centers from this abundant C-4 skeleton. However, the desymmetrization of ubiquitous isopropyl moieties by organometallic catalysts has remained an unanswered challenge. Herein, we report the design of chiral mono-protected aminomethyl oxazoline ligands that enable desymmetrization of isopropyl groups via palladium insertion into the C(sp3)-H bonds of one of the prochiral methyl groups. We detail the enantioselective β-arylation, -alkenylation, and -alkynylation of isobutyric acid/2-aminoisobutyric acid derivatives, which may serve as a platform for the construction of α-chiral centers.

Tamejiro Hiyama

Tamejiro Hiyama

Ligand-accelerated enantioselective methylene C(sp3)-H bond activation.

Effective differentiation of prochiral carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds on a single methylene carbon via asymmetric metal insertion remains a challenge. Here, we report the discovery of chiral acetyl-protected aminoethyl quinoline ligands that enable asymmetric palladium insertion into prochiral C-H bonds on a single methylene carbon center. We apply these palladium complexes to catalytic enantioselective functionalization of β-methylene C-H bonds in aliphatic amides. Using bidentate ligands to accelerate C-H activation of otherwise unreactive monodentate substrates is crucial for outcompeting the background reaction driven by substrate-directed cyclopalladation, thereby avoiding erosion of enantioselectivity. The potential of ligand acceleration in C-H activation is also demonstrated by enantioselective β-C-H arylation of simple carboxylic acids without installing directing groups.

A General Route to β-Substituted Pyrroles by Transition-Metal Catalysis.

An atom-efficient route to pyrroles substituted in the β-position has been achieved in four high yielding steps by a combination of Pd, Ru, and Fe catalysis with only water and ethene as side-products. The reaction is general and gives pyrroles substituted in the β-position with linear and branched alkyl, benzyl, or aryl groups in overall good yields. The synthetic route includes a Pd-catalyzed monoallylation step of amines with substituted allylic alcohols that proceeds to yield the monoallylated products in moderate to excellent yields. In a second step, unsymmetrical diallylated aromatic amines are generated from the reaction of a second allylic alcohol with high selectivity in moderate to good yields by control of the reaction temperature. Ru-catalyzed ring-closing metathesis performed on the diallylated aromatic amines yields the pyrrolines substituted in the β-position in excellent yields. By addition of ferric chloride to the reaction mixture, a selective aromatization to yield the corresponding pyrroles substituted in the β-position was achieved. A reaction mechanism involving a palladium hydride, generated from insertion of palladium to O-H of an allyl alcohol, that is responsible for the C-O bond cleavage to generate the π-allyl intermediate is proposed.

Palladium(II), Ruthenium(II), and Ruthenium(III) Complexes of 23-Thiaazuliporphyrin: The Case of Coordination-Induced Contraction.

5,10,15,20-Tetraaryl-23-thiaazuliporphyrin (SAz) was synthesized starting from nonfunctionalized azulene using a "1 + 3" method to be applied as a monoanionic macrocyclic ligand that provides a peculiar [CNSN] coordination cavity. An insertion of palladium(II) afforded the cationic [Pd(II)(SAz)](+), which readily undergoes the seven-membered ring contraction to form palladium(II) 23-thiabenzocarbaporphyrin [Pd(SBzC)] providing the first example of metal azuliporphyrinoid contraction. A reaction of SAz and a ruthenium source ([RuCl2(CO)3]2, [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2, or [RuCl2(cod)]) yielded ruthenium(II) 23-thiaazuliporphyrin [Ru(II)(SAz)Cl(CO)]. As shown by X-ray crystallography the thiophene ring in [Ru(SAz)Cl(CO)] is sharply tilted out of the plane of the two pyrrole nitrogen and carbon atoms being bound to the ruthenium through the pyramidal sulfur in the η(1) fashion. In solution, as demonstrated by variable-temperature (1)H NMR investigations, [Ru(SAz)Cl(CO)] exists as an equilibrium mixture of two isomers that are differentiated by the direction of thiophene folding (toward or outward of the axial chloride ligand). Apart of [Ru(II)(SAz)Cl(CO)], ruthenium(III) 23-thiaazuliporphyrin [Ru(III)(SAz)Cl2] was obtained when [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 or [RuCl2(cod)]n were used for insertion. The most characteristic (1)H NMR features of paramagnetic [Ru(SAz)Cl2] are negative isotropic shifts of resonances assigned to meso-aryl, azulene, and pyrrolic hydrogen atoms. The analysis of contact shifts and the parallel density functional theory calculations of spin density distribution documented that in [Ru(SAz)Cl2] the metal ion acquires the d(xy)(2)(d(xz)d(yz))(3) ground electronic state. This C(s) symmetry complex has singly occupied d(xz) or d(yz) orbitals that are symmetrically unequivalent. The resulting two different spin density distributions, when merged, reflect the spectroscopic image with the very specific π-spin delocalization, also including the azulene moiety.

Heterometallic Pd(II)-Ni(II) complexes with meso-substituted dibenzotetraaza[14]annulene: double C-H bond activation and formation of a rectangular tetradibenzotetraaza[14]annulene.

Three isomeric 2[Pd(II)-Ni(II)] metal complexes, derived from indoleninyl meso-substituted dibenzotetraaza[14]annulene, were synthesized. The resulting dimers feature Ni···Ni or, alternatively, Ni···π interactions in staggered or slipped cofacial structures. A remarkable insertion of palladium into two different C-H bonds yielded a 4[Pd(II)-Ni(II)] rectangular complex with dimensions of 8.73 × 10.38 Å.

ChemInform Abstract: Mild Heterogeneous Palladium‐Catalyzed Cleavage of β‐O‐4′‐Ether Linkages of Lignin Model Compounds and Native Lignin in Air.

A mild and robust heterogeneous palladium-catalyzed CO bond cleavage of 2-aryloxy-1-arylethanols using formic acid as reducing agent in air was developed. The cleaved products were isolated in 92–98 % yield; and by slightly varying the reaction conditions, a ketone, an alcohol, or an alkane can be generated in near-quantitative yield. This reaction is applicable to cleaving the b-O-4’-ether bond found in lignin polymers of different origin. The reaction was performed on a lignin polymer model to generate either the monomeric aryl ketone or alkane in a quantitative yield. Moderate depolymerization was achieved with native lignin at similar reaction conditions. Mechanistic studies under kinetic control indicate that an initial palladium-catalyzed dehydrogenation of the alcohol is followed by insertion of palladium to an enol equivalent. A palladium–formato complex reductively cleaves the palladium–enolate complex to generate the ketone.

Mechanistic Insights into the Palladium‐Catalyzed Domino Synthesis of 10,11‐Dihydro‐5H‐dibenzo[b,e][1,4]diazepines

AbstractA palladium‐catalyzed domino approach to the synthesis of 10,11‐dihydro‐5H‐dibenzo[b,e][1,4]diazepines starting from o‐phenylenediamines and 2‐bromobenzyl bromides or tosylates has been developed. Mechanistic studies support the following domino sequence. Intermolecular mono‐N‐benzylation of the o‐phenylenediamine through oxidative palladium insertion, primarily at the benzylic position of the 2‐bromobenzyl bromide, is followed by intramolecular N′‐arylation. The intramolecular N′‐arylation is demonstrated to be facilitated by coordination of a remote auxiliary nitrogen atom to the palladium atom.

Total synthesis of (+)-ileabethoxazole via an iron-mediated Pauson-Khand [2 + 2 + 1] carbocyclization.

Studies describe the total synthesis of (+)-ileabethoxazole (1) using a Stille cross-coupling reaction of propargylic stannanes with 5-iodo-1,3-oxazoles to produce 1,1-disubstituted allenes (11). An iron-mediated [2 + 2 + 1] carbocyclization yields a novel cyclopentenone for elaboration to 1. Site-selective palladium insertion reactions allow for regiocontrolled substitutions of the heterocycle. Asymmetric copper hydride reductions are examined, and strategies for the formation of the central aromatic ring are discussed.

Mild Heterogeneous Palladium‐Catalyzed Cleavage of β‐O‐4′‐Ether Linkages of Lignin Model Compounds and Native Lignin in Air

AbstractA mild and robust heterogeneous palladium‐catalyzed CO bond cleavage of 2‐aryloxy‐1‐arylethanols using formic acid as reducing agent in air was developed. The cleaved products were isolated in 92–98 % yield; and by slightly varying the reaction conditions, a ketone, an alcohol, or an alkane can be generated in near‐quantitative yield. This reaction is applicable to cleaving the β‐O‐4′‐ether bond found in lignin polymers of different origin. The reaction was performed on a lignin polymer model to generate either the monomeric aryl ketone or alkane in a quantitative yield. Moderate depolymerization was achieved with native lignin at similar reaction conditions. Mechanistic studies under kinetic control indicate that an initial palladium‐catalyzed dehydrogenation of the alcohol is followed by insertion of palladium to an enol equivalent. A palladium–formato complex reductively cleaves the palladium–enolate complex to generate the ketone.

ChemInform Abstract: Synthesis of Indeno[1,2‐c]furans via a Pd‐Catalyzed Bicyclization of 2‐Alkynyliodobenzene and Propargylic Alcohol.

AbstractThe reaction is proposed to proceed via oxidative insertion of palladium into the aryl—halogen bond followed by complexation to the propargylic alcohol, two subsequent syn‐palladations, and a final reductive elimination, generating one C—O and two C—C bonds in a single synthetic step.