European Insect Research Articles

Sustainable integration of insects into European food chains

Abstract The European Commission’s Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) is a cornerstone of the European Green Deal, aiming for transition towards a more sustainable and circular economy by addressing waste reduction and promoting recycling of low-opportunity cost biomass. The EU Horizon 2020 project SUStainable INsect CHAIN (SUSINCHAIN) aligns with these goals, focusing on the efficient utilisation of insects in the food chain to strengthen sustainable supply chains, enhance consumer acceptance, and create market opportunities. The project, targeted at Technology Readiness Level 6, addresses barriers through comprehensive research, technology demonstrations, and stakeholder collaboration. Results contribute to scaling up the insect sector by overcoming supply and demand challenges, fostering trust, and developing best practices. The opinions generated encompass market opportunities, insect rearing, processing, safety, and sustainability, providing guidelines for stakeholders, public authorities, policymakers, and academia to collectively drive the growth and acceptance of the European insect sector.

A Host Tree and Its Specialist Insects: Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) Availability Largely Determines the Future Range Dynamics of Its Specialist Insects in Europe.

Black locust is the only host of Robinia-specialist insects in Europe. However, no study to date has examined future range shifts of specialist insects, and the relative effects of host plant availability and other factors on their range shifts. Here, we characterized the future range shifts in the host and its four specialist insects and the factors contributing to changes in their ranges. We detected substantial range expansions in all target species. Climate predictors and host plant availability were expected to have the strongest effects on the range shifts in the host and its specialist insects, respectively, suggesting that the specialist insects will track the ranges of their host. Parectopa robiniella showed the largest potential and expanding ranges and should be made a priority species for controlling invasions of Robinia-specialist insects in Europe. The expanding ranges of all specialist species were largely identified in the United Kingdom, Germany, and France, suggesting that these should be priority regions for mitigating their effects on ecosystems. Reducing future climate change is essential for preventing the spreading of specialist insects in Europe since specialist insects track their specialist host plants, and host range expansions are mainly driven by future climate changes.

Microbiological stability of Hermetia illucens meal subjected to two different heat treatments

The use of processed insect proteins for poultry and pig feed has been authorized since August 2021 (Regulation EU, 2021/1372). It has been already authorized for aquaculture since 2017 (Regulation EU, 2017/893). The adoption of this Regulation has boosted the European insect industry. However, there is currently little information regarding the evaluation of the shelf-life of insect-based feeds. The present work analyzed meals of Hermetia illucens that underwent two different treatments. The first treatment involved pre-sterilization at 80 °C for 2 h, and after that the larvae were subjected to treatment at 65 °C. The second treatment consisting in a heat treatment at 65 °C without pre-sterilization. The analysis performed for specific microbiological parameters, such as presence of β-glucuronidase positive Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae, colony count at 30 °C, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, coagulase-positive Staphylococcus, yeasts and moulds, did not reveal any concerns about bacteria counts or pathogen presence.

Safety and transfer of veterinary drugs from substrate to black soldier fly larvae

There is an increasing interest in edible insects in Europe for feed and food purposes. Quantitative information on the transfer of chemical hazards from substrates to larvae is needed to evaluate food and feed safety aspects. This evaluation is especially needed when organic substrates or residual streams such as manure will be applied as substrate, contributing to a circular food system. This study investigated the transfer of veterinary drugs from spiked substrate to black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Veterinary drugs that are commonly administered to chicken, fattening pigs, and cattle and regularly detected in manure were included: three different antibiotics (enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, sulfamethoxazole), three coccidiostats (narasin, salinomycin, toltrazuril) and one antiparasitic drug (eprinomectin). The chemicals were spiked to insect substrate to reach final concentrations of 0.5 and 5 mg/kg for the antibiotics and the antiparasitic drug, and 5 and 50 mg/kg for the coccidiostats. Black soldier fly larvae were reared for 1 week on the spiked substrates, and the transfer of the veterinary drugs to the larvae and frass was quantified using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Only oxytetracycline and eprinomectin reduced the average weight and/or survival of the black soldier fly larvae. The transfer of the veterinary drugs to the larvae was on average 19.2% for oxytetracycline, 12% for enrofloxacin, 9.5% for narasin, 8.1% for eprinomectin, 3.9% for salinomycin, 4.2% for toltrazuril, and 0.2% for sulfamethoxazole, relative to concentrations in the substrate. Mass-balance calculations revealed that the larvae seem to metabolise veterinary drugs, and indeed, metabolites of enrofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and toltrazuril were detected in the larvae and frass. In conclusion, insect-rearing substrates should be evaluated for the presence of veterinary drug residues to ensure feed (and food) safety, as well as because of possible effects on insect growth.

The most remarkable migrants-systematic analysis of the Western European insect flyway at a Pyrenean mountain pass.

In autumn 1950 David and Elizabeth Lack chanced upon a huge migration of insects and birds flying through the Pyrenean Pass of Bujaruelo, from France into Spain, later describing the spectacle as combining both grandeur and novelty. The intervening years have seen many changes to land use and climate, posing the question as to the current status of this migratory phenomenon. In addition, a lack of quantitative data has prevented insights into the ecological impact of this mass insect migration and the factors that may influence it. To address this, we revisited the site in autumn over a 4 year period and systematically monitored abundance and species composition of diurnal insect migrants. We estimate an annual mean of 17.1 million day-flying insect migrants from five orders (Diptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Odonata) moving south, with observations of southward 'mass migration' events associated with warmer temperatures, the presence of a headwind, sunlight, low windspeed and low rainfall. Diptera dominated the migratory assemblage, and annual numbers varied by more than fourfold. Numbers at this single site hint at the likely billions of insects crossing the entire Pyrenean mountain range each year, and we highlight the importance of this route for seasonal insect migrants.

Robustness of business models for insect production for feed and food in Europe

Abstract Insects and their derivatives are increasingly recognised as a (more) sustainable and circular protein source for feed and food. The European insect industry is growing, but upscaling remains a challenge due to multiple uncertainties. This study analysed the robustness of three different business models for insect production for feed and food in six future scenarios. Business models and scenarios were identified through literature review and refined through expert elicitation (n = 5). The three business models comprised: (1) full-liner black soldier fly production for pet food, (2) decentralised black soldier fly production for aquafeed, and (3) mealworm processing cooperative for food. The six scenarios addressed uncertainties around the use of side streams, insect welfare, energy, and sustainability. We used the Business Model Stress Test in four focus groups with experts (n = 23) from six European countries. Heat maps for three distinct business models were presented, detailing the impacts of scenarios on business model components. Experts regarded full-liner black soldier fly production for pet food and mealworm processing cooperative for food as more robust than decentralised black soldier fly production for aquafeed. These differences were mainly related to the customer segments, value proposition, revenue structure, and cost structure. In full-liner black soldier fly production for pet food, stringent regulations were expected to have no negative impact on business model components, in contrast to liberal regulations with anticipated adverse effects. Examination of regulatory uncertainty indicated strict legislation’s advantageous expected impact on consumer trust in the pet food and food market. High energy prices were anticipated as a major challenge across all business models, while improved sustainability compliance was viewed positively. The classification in relatively more or less robust business models serves as a guide for business and policy in further developing the insect sector for feed and food in Europe.

Antennal olfactory sensitivity and its age‐dependence in the hemimetabolous insectMetcalfa pruinosa

AbstractMetcalfa pruinosais a highly polyphagous, invasive insect in Europe with the capability of transferring phytoplasma. In the present study, we aim to identify volatile organic compounds that may act as semiochemicals forM. pruinosa. Using a dynamic volatile collection system, volatile organic compounds were collected fromAilanthus altissima,Aristolochia clematitisandTagetes patula. Compounds were identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. We also tested the electrophysiological responses ofM. pruinosato the collected volatile organic compounds using gas chromatography‐electroantennographic detection. In total, 77 volatile organic compounds were identified, and 29 compounds elicited an electroantennographic response. We analysed responses to volatile organic compounds extracted fromTagetes patulato compare antennal sensitivity between developmental stages and sexes. No differences were found in responders' number or response amplitude between males and females or adults and nymphs for any volatile. Based on the detected compounds,M. pruinosaadult females and males seem to have similar ecological needs in the host habitat. However, when we compared the response amplitudes among compounds, significant differences were found. These differences suggest that (E)‐4,8‐dimethyl‐nonatriene, methyl salicylate, and piperitone could have an important role inM. pruinosa's behaviour. This is the first contribution toM. pruinosaolfaction profile providing a base for future semiochemical‐based pest control tactics.

The new record of the Mammoth Wasp Megascolia maculata (Drury, 1773) in the Ternopil oblast as evidence of the species range expansion

Mammoth Wasp Megascolia maculata (Drury, 1773) (Hymenoptera, Scoliidae) widely distributed in the south of the Western Palearctic and is the largest Hymenoptera insect in Europe. The species range covers southern and partially Central Europe, North Africa, Turkey, the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Western and Central Asia (Western Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Syria, Israel, Kuwait, Iran, Afghanistan). Three subspecies are distinguished within the species range: Megascolia (Regiscolia) maculata bischoffi (Micha, 1927) – island of Cyprus, Megascolia (Regiscolia) maculata flavifrons (Fabricius, 1775) – western Mediterranean including Italy, Megascolia (Regiscolia) maculata maculata (Drury, 1773) – Eastern Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe and Asia. However, DNA barcoding showed no difference between these three subspecies (Schmid-Egger, Schmidt, 2021). In Ukraine it is represented by a nominative subspecies Megascolia (Regiscolia) maculata maculata (Drury, 1773), most of the findings are concentrated in the central and southeastern provinces (oblasts). The species is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine with protection status: not evaluated (NE). The purpose of the study was to analyze its spread in Ukraine and neighboring countries, in particular, define the northern boundary of the species range. The material for the work was collections (State Museum of Natural History, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, entomological collection of the Department of Botany and Zoology of Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University), own observations, literature data, information from web resources on biodiversity: GBIF - 3800 findings GBIF, 2023; Megascolia…, 2023), iNaturalist – 3208 observations (iNaturalist, 2023), Data Centre «Biodiversity of Ukraine» – 265 records, Ukrainian Biodiversity Information Network – 127 findings. Data on a new discovered of Mammoth Wasp Megascolia maculata (Drury, 1773) in the Ternopil oblast (24.06.2022, Laskivtsi village, Ternopilskyi district, 49.170338N, 25.568823E) are presented. The distribution of the species in Ukraine and neighboring countries is analyzed, a map of the distribution of the species in the region is presented and indicated the expansion of the species range in the northwest direction. Probably, for the next few years we can expect it’s discovered in the Lviv and Volyn oblasts, as well as in Poland.

Anticipating where are unknown aquatic insects in Europe to improve biodiversity conservation

AbstractAimUnderstanding biodiversity patterns is crucial for prioritizing future conservation efforts and reducing the current rates of biodiversity loss. However, a large proportion of species remain undescribed (i.e. unknown biodiversity), hindering our ability to conduct this task. This phenomenon, known as the ‘Linnean shortfall’, is especially relevant in highly diverse, yet endangered, taxonomic groups, such as insects. Here we explore the distributions of recently described freshwater insect species in Europe to (1) infer the potential location of unknown biodiversity hotspots and (2) determine the variables that can anticipate the distribution of unknown biodiversity.LocationThe European continent, including western Russia, Cyprus and Turkey.MethodsGeoreferenced information of all sites where new aquatic insect species were described across Europe from 2000 to 2020 was compiled. In order to understand the observed spatial patterns in richness of recently described species, spatial units were defined (level 6 of HydroBASINS) and associated with a combination of a set of socioeconomic, environmental and sampling effort descriptors. A zero‐inflated Poisson regression approach was used to model the richness of newly described species within each spatial unit.ResultsNine hundred and sixty‐six recently described species were found: 398 Diptera, 362 Trichoptera, 105 Coleoptera, 66 Plecoptera, 28 Ephemeroptera, 3 Neuroptera, 2 Lepidoptera and 2 Odonata. The Mediterranean Basin was the region with the highest number of recently described species (74%). The richness of recently described species per spatial unit across Europe was highest at mid‐elevation areas (between 400 and 1000 m), latitudes between 40 and 50° and in areas with yearly average precipitation levels of 500–1000 mm, a medium intensity of sampling effort and low population density. The percentage of protected areas in each study unit was not significantly related to the richness of recently described species. In fact, 70% of the species were found outside protected areas.Main conclusionsThe results highlight the urgent need to concentrate conservation efforts in freshwater ecosystems located at mid‐altitude areas and out of protected areas across the Mediterranean Basin. The highest number of newly described species in those areas indicates that further monitoring efforts are required to ensure the aquatic biodiversity is adequately known and managed within a context of growing human impacts in freshwater ecosystems.

Black soldier fly larvae as an alternative feed source and agro-waste disposal route – A life cycle perspective

Life cycle assessment (LCA) was applied to evaluate black soldier fly production using different diets, including typical Belgian agro-residues (Brussels sprout stems, endive roots and solid fraction pig manure). The LCA compared insect-based feed with soybean meal and fishmeal, and composting through insects versus conventional treatments. Underlying LCA data were derived through feeding experiments. To determine the sensitivity of the results, we tested the effect of alternative energy sources and dietary components.Non-residue insect feed and energy use contributed greatly to overall environmental impacts. Insect protein had greater impacts than protein from soybean meal or fishmeal due to the high energy consumption and, in some cases, agro-product demands. These should be areas of focus to make European insect production more sustainable. In the case of Brussels sprout stems and endive roots, conventional treatments outperformed composting by insects. Between industrial versus insect pig manure composting, the results varied greatly by energy source and impact category.

Barriers, risks and risk management strategies in European insect supply chains

Despite technological developments and regulatory improvements, most actors in the insect sector still face many challenges and uncertainties. While previous research mainly focused on the perception of domain-specific challenges and risks or has been limited to specific stages in the supply chain, this study aims to determine how stakeholders perceive the importance of past barriers and future risks along European insect supply chains, and to identify the applied risk management strategies. Data were collected from stakeholders across four stages of the supply chain (rearers (n=23), processors (n=8), and insect derived feed (n=14), and food (n=12) producers) through an online survey. In total, 60 different barriers and risks, as well as 20 different risk management strategies, were evaluated. We find that stakeholders across all stages of the supply chain perceived ‘financial, cost and market’ barriers and risks as most important, specifically referring to the lack of financial investments and price and demand uncertainties. In addition, legal restrictions were perceived to constrain upscaling opportunities across all supply chain stages. Worker and food safety barriers were generally perceived as least important. The main risk management strategies across all stages of the supply chain related to investments in technologies enhancing stability of both the quality and the quantity of insects and derived products. Stakeholders were most optimistic about the future reduction of ‘operational’ and ‘financial, cost and market’ risks. To further stimulate upscaling of the sector, we recommend to enhance financing opportunities, and to improve authorisations for the use of different substrates and the production of a wider set of insect-based ingredients for feed and food products.

Overcoming Technical and Market Barriers to Enable Sustainable Large-Scale Production and Consumption of Insect Proteins in Europe: A SUSINCHAIN Perspective.

Simple SummaryInsects are increasingly being used in Europe as a new or alternative source of protein for both direct human consumption and ingredients for feed and food production. Upscaling edible insect production and processing to a sustainable industrial sector is critical to supply the market and meet the foreseen future demands. In a market where transition to more sustainable protein sources is one of the primary challenges, sustainable insect products can contribute to a circular and sustainable economy as well as food security. SUSINCHAIN (SUStainable INsect CHAIN) is a European Horizon 2020 project that aims to contribute to overcome technical and market barriers to enable sustainable large-scale production and consumption of insect proteins in Europe by generating and sharing knowledge, as well as testing, piloting, and demonstrating newly developed insect chain innovations and increasing societal engagement. This article provides an outline of the various obstacles to upscaling of the insect sector and the project’s contributions to overcome these. The project covers the topics of: market opportunities, consumer perception, optimization of insect rearing conditions and substrates, insect transportation and processing techniques, application of insect products in food and feed, food safety issues in insect production and processing, together with economic and environmental sustainability. The project’s outcomes will provide tools for scaling up and commercializing the European insect sector.The expected global population growth to 9.7 billion people in 2050 and the significant change in global dietary patterns require an increase in global food production by about 60%. The protein supply for feed and food is most critical and requires an extension in protein sources. Edible insects can upgrade low-grade side streams of food production into high-quality protein, amino acids and vitamins in a very efficient way. Insects are considered to be the “missing link” in the food chain of a circular and sustainable economy. Insects and insect-derived products have entered the European market since first being acknowledged as a valuable protein source for feed and food production in around 2010. However, today, scaling up the insect value chain in Europe is progressing at a relatively slow pace. The mission of SUSINCHAIN (SUStainable INsect CHAIN)—a four-year project which has received funding from the European Commission—is to contribute to novel protein provision for feed and food in Europe by overcoming the remaining barriers for increasing the economic viability of the insect value chain and opening markets by combining forces in a comprehensive multi-actor consortium. The overall project objective is to test, pilot and demonstrate recently developed technologies, products and processes, to realize a shift up to Technology Readiness Level 6 or higher. In addition to these crucial activities, the project engages with stakeholders in the insect protein supply chain for feed and food by living labs and workshops. These actions provide the necessary knowledge and data for actors in the insect value chain to decrease the cost price of insect products, process insects more efficiently and market insect protein applications in animal feed and regular human diets that are safe and sustainable. This paves the way for further upscaling and commercialization of the European insect sector.

Exploring the Future of Edible Insects in Europe.

The effects of population increase and food production on the environment have prompted various international organizations to focus on the future potential for more environmentally friendly and alternative protein products. One of those alternatives might be edible insects. Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects by humans, is common in some places but has traditionally been shunned in others, such as European countries. The last decade has seen a growing interest from the public and private sectors to the research in the sphere of edible insects, as well as significant steps forward from the legislative perspective. In the EU, edible insects are considered novel foods, therefore a specific request and procedure must be followed to place them in the market; in fact, until now, four requests regarding insects as a novel food have been approved. Insects could also be used as feed for livestock, helping to increase food production without burdening the environment (indirect entomophagy). Market perspectives for the middle of this decade indicate that most of the demand will be from the feed sector (as pet food or livestock feed production). Undoubtedly, this sector is gaining momentum and its potential relies not only in food, but also in feed in the context of a circular economy.

Effect of Climate Change on Introduced and Native Agricultural Invasive Insect Pests in Europe.

Simple SummaryInvasive insects, along with climate change, are among the two most important environmental problems facing the world today. They pose a threat to many ecosystems worldwide, especially agriculture. As a result, there is a serious risk of economic losses to crops and a challenge to human food security. The aim of this review is to examine the relationship between climate change and the process of invasion of economically important insects in Europe. In recent decades, globalization has led to an increase in the worldwide movement of people and goods, resulting in an increase in the number of insects introduced into areas outside their original range. The harmful effects of invasive insects may be exacerbated by climate change as barriers to their successful establishment and dispersal decrease. To limit economic and environmental damage, it is important to understand the biotic and abiotic factors that influence the process of insect invasion in the context of climate change. We highlight the main biotic factors that influence the biological invasion process. Finally, we present the adaptive management strategies for invasion of non-native insect pests’ invasion that include prevention, eradication and assessment of biological invasion in the form of predictive modelling.Climate change and invasive species are major environmental issues facing the world today. They represent the major threats for various types of ecosystems worldwide, mainly managed ecosystems such as agriculture. This study aims to examine the link between climate change and the biological invasion of insect pest species. Increased international trade systems and human mobility have led to increasing introduction rates of invasive insects while climate change could decrease barriers for their establishment and distribution. To mitigate environmental and economic damage it is important to understand the biotic and abiotic factors affecting the process of invasion (transport, introduction, establishment, and dispersal) in terms of climate change. We highlight the major biotic factors affecting the biological invasion process: diet breadth, phenological plasticity, and lifecycle strategies. Finally, we present alien insect pest invasion management that includes prevention, eradication, and assessment of the biological invasion in the form of modelling prediction tools.

A modular environmental and economic assessment applied to the production of Hermetia illucens larvae as a protein source for food and feed

PurposeThe inclusion of insect protein into the food system has been proposed as a promising solution to ensure future food security and mitigate negative environmental impacts related to food production. However, the market volume for edible insects in Europe is still small; consequently, producers need a decision-support system to ensure the sustainable upscaling of the sector. The study analyzed environmental and economic impacts of insect production to identify the most eco-efficient production scenarios.MethodsA novel modular eco-efficiency assessment approach was developed to analyze the production of dried Hermetia illucens larvae. An exemplary, industrial-scale insect production system was disaggregated into a total of 29 module variants that can be combined into 4608 distinct production scenarios, which are characterized by different feeds, energy efficiencies, and processing technologies. Environmental life cycle and cost assessments were carried out for each module variant, and eco-efficiency assessment was used to jointly assess these two sustainability dimensions. Additionally, the influence of the insect feed on the production system performance and impact was investigated by employing feed-specific scaling factors. These were used to aggregate module results into production scenario results.Results and discussionThe most eco-efficient production scenarios include energy-efficient rearing facilities that rely on blanching and microwave drying for processing. The insect feed is the largest contributor to the environmental impacts and costs, but from an eco-efficiency standpoint, the choice of feed might not be crucial. Waste-type feeds (e.g., manure, fruit, and vegetable waste) have low environmental impacts and costs, but the production scenarios based on these feeds are less efficient. The low impacts of the feed are offset by higher impacts during the rearing and processing stages. Conversely, scenarios based on higher quality feeds (e.g., by-products like wheat middlings or distiller’s grains) require less resources, but the initial feed impacts and costs are higher. Moreover, of the feed types studied, only highly processed ones, such as compound chicken feed, should be avoided for insect rearing.ConclusionsThe developed modular assessment approach is efficient in assessing multiple potential insect production scenarios. It can be adapted to incorporate additional variations of the production system via additional modules. Limitations include the potential for redundant module combinations and the up-front time investment needed. Finally, the results are sensitive to methodological choices: thus, these should be carefully considered and communicated during the design of the modular assessment system.

Citizen Science for Quantification of Insect Abundance on Windshields of Cars Across Two Continents

The abundance and the diversity of insects in Europe have declined considerably during recent decades, while it remains unclear whether similar changes may also have occurred elsewhere. Here we used citizen science for quantifying the abundance of flying insects on windshields of cars across Europe and to a smaller extent in China. We used the abundance of insects killed against windshields of cars during 3,530 transects for a total distance of 83,019 km made by 50 observers as estimates of insect abundance. A total of 124,606 insects were recorded, or approximately 1.5 insect per km. The abundance of insects killed against windshields was highly repeatable among days for the same locality, showing consistent estimates of abundance. The main determinants of insect abundance were features of cars (driving speed and car model that can be considered noise of no biological significance), local weather (temperature, cloud cover and wind speed) and variation across the season and the day. We tested for differences in the abundance of flying insects killed on windshields of cars predicting and finding (1) a reduction in insect abundance in areas with ionizing radiation at Chernobyl compared to uncontaminated control sites in the neighborhood, (2) a reduction in the abundance of flying insects in Western compared to Eastern Europe, (3) a reduction in the abundance of flying insects killed on windshields from southern to northern Europe compared to latitudinal samples of insects from southern to northern China, and (4) a difference in abundance of insects killed on windshields of cars in Spain with a significant interaction between Spain and Denmark. Thus a number of abiotic and biotic factors accounted for temporal and spatial heterogeneity in abundance of insects, providing a useful tool for monitoring and studying determinants of spatial and temporal patterns of insect abundance. This also implies that our estimate of insect abundance may be relevant for the study of competition and for interactions at higher trophic levels.

Visible Labour? Productive Forces and Imaginaries of Participation in European Insect Studies, ca. 1680-1810*.

The practice of early modern natural history depended on the collective collecting activities of a great variety of people. Among them, artisans played a major role in acquiring and distributing knowledge about the natural world and they contributed significantly to the scholarly labour in natural history. This distributed labour was both acknowledged by contemporaries as well as hidden from sight, reflecting the period′s dominant norms for class and gender. By combining an interpretation of the visual representation of labour in European insect studies with an examination of written sources about natural history practices from about 1680 to 1810, this article decodes the often‐codified frontispieces and other more symbolic illustrations to offer new insights into the labour of natural history. Those who identified as scholars and artisans (or both) conceptualised their own intellectual and practical engagement with natural history within the semantic field of work. Some seemed to have even envisioned a new social role for academics as well as artisans. This article analyses the diversity of the “productive forces” in insect studies as they changed over time and it reconstructs what I will call the social imaginaries of participation.

Possibilities of the Development of Edible Insect-Based Foods in Europe.

All over the world, a large proportion of the population consume insects as part of their diet. In Western countries, however, the consumption of insects is perceived as a negative phenomenon. The consumption of insects worldwide can be considered in two ways: on the one hand, as a source of protein in countries affected by hunger, while, on the other, as an alternative protein in highly-developed regions, in response to the need for implementing policies of sustainable development. This review focused on both the regulations concerning the production and marketing of insects in Europe and the characteristics of edible insects that are most likely to establish a presence on the European market. The paper indicates numerous advantages of the consumption of insects, not only as a valuable source of protein but also as a raw material rich in valuable fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral salts. Attention was paid to the functional properties of proteins derived from insects, and to the possibility for using them in the production of functional food. The study also addresses the hazards which undoubtedly contribute to the mistrust and lowered acceptance of European consumers and points to the potential gaps in the knowledge concerning the breeding conditions, raw material processing and health safety. This set of analyzed data allows us to look optimistically at the possibilities for the development of edible insect-based foods, particularly in Europe.

Resin acids as inducible chemical defences of pine seedlings against chewing insects.

Inducibility of defences in response to biotic stimuli is considered an important trait in plant resistance. In conifers, previous research has mostly focused on the inducibility of the volatile fraction of the oleoresin (mono- and sesquiterpenes), leaving the inducibility of the non-volatile resin acids largely unexplored, particularly in response to real herbivory. Here we investigated the differences in the inducibility of resin acids in two pine species, one native from Europe (Pinus pinaster Ait.) and another from North America (Pinus radiata D. Don), in response to wounding by two European insects: a bark chewer, the pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.), and a defoliator, the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa Schiff.). We quantified the constitutive (control) and induced concentrations of resin acids in the stem and needles of both pine species by gas chromatography techniques. Both pine species strongly increased the concentration of resin acids in the stem after pine weevil feeding, although the response was greater in P. pinaster than in P. radiata. However, systemic defensive responses in the needles were negligible in both pine species after pine weevil feeding in the stem. On the other hand, P. radiata locally reduced the resin acid concentration in the needles after pine caterpillar feeding, whereas in P. pinaster resin acid concentration was apparently unaffected. Nevertheless, systemic induction of resin acids was only observed in the stem of P. pinaster in response to pine caterpillar feeding. In summary, pine induced responses were found highly compartmentalized, and specific to herbivore identity. Particularly, plant defence suppression mechanisms by the pine caterpillar, and ontogenetic factors might be potentially affecting the induced response of resin acids in both pine species.

Completing Linnaeus's inventory of the Swedish insect fauna: Only 5,000 species left?

Despite more than 250 years of taxonomic research, we still have only a vague idea about the true size and composition of the faunas and floras of the planet. Many biodiversity inventories provide limited insight because they focus on a small taxonomic subsample or a tiny geographic area. Here, we report on the size and composition of the Swedish insect fauna, thought to represent roughly half of the diversity of multicellular life in one of the largest European countries. Our results are based on more than a decade of data from the Swedish Taxonomy Initiative and its massive inventory of the country's insect fauna, the Swedish Malaise Trap Project The fauna is considered one of the best known in the world, but the initiative has nevertheless revealed a surprising amount of hidden diversity: more than 3,000 new species (301 new to science) have been documented so far. Here, we use three independent methods to analyze the true size and composition of the fauna at the family or subfamily level: (1) assessments by experts who have been working on the most poorly known groups in the fauna; (2) estimates based on the proportion of new species discovered in the Malaise trap inventory; and (3) extrapolations based on species abundance and incidence data from the inventory. For the last method, we develop a new estimator, the combined non-parametric estimator, which we show is less sensitive to poor coverage of the species pool than other popular estimators. The three methods converge on similar estimates of the size and composition of the fauna, suggesting that it comprises around 33,000 species. Of those, 8,600 (26%) were unknown at the start of the inventory and 5,000 (15%) still await discovery. We analyze the taxonomic and ecological composition of the estimated fauna, and show that most of the new species belong to Hymenoptera and Diptera groups that are decomposers or parasitoids. Thus, current knowledge of the Swedish insect fauna is strongly biased taxonomically and ecologically, and we show that similar but even stronger biases have distorted our understanding of the fauna in the past. We analyze latitudinal gradients in the size and composition of known European insect faunas and show that several of the patterns contradict the Swedish data, presumably due to similar knowledge biases. Addressing these biases is critical in understanding insect biomes and the ecosystem services they provide. Our results emphasize the need to broaden the taxonomic scope of current insect monitoring efforts, a task that is all the more urgent as recent studies indicate a possible worldwide decline in insect faunas.