Metal-organic Frameworks Research Articles

Biomimetic Targeted Co‐Delivery System Engineered from Genomic Insights for Precision Treatment of Osteosarcoma

AbstractThe high heterogeneity and severe side effects of chemotherapy are major factors contributing to the failure of osteosarcoma treatment. Herein, a comprehensive genomic analysis is conducted, and identified two prominent characteristics of osteosarcoma: significant cyclin‐dependent kinases 4 (CDK4) amplification and homologous recombination repair deficiency. Based on these findings, a co‐delivery system loaded with CDK4/6 inhibitors and poly ADP‐ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors is designed. By employing metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) as carriers, issue of drug insolubility is effectively addressed, while also enabling controlled release in response to the tumor microenvironment. To enhance targeting capability and biocompatibility, the MOFs are further coated with a bio‐membrane targeting B7H3. This targeted biomimetic co‐delivery system possesses several key features: 1) it can precisely target osteosarcoma with high B7H3 expression; 2) the combination of CDK4/6 inhibitors and PARP inhibitors exhibits synergistic effects, significantly impairing tumor's DNA repair capacity; and 3) the system has the potential for combination with photodynamic therapy, amplifying DNA repair defects to maximize tumor cell eradication. Furthermore, it is observed that this co‐delivery system can activate immune microenvironment, increasing CD8+ T cell infiltration and converting osteosarcoma from an immune‐cold to an immune‐hot tumor. In summary, the co‐delivery system is an effective therapeutic strategy and holds promise as a novel approach for osteosarcoma treatment.

Coupling [Bmim]PF6 and Pd NPs Modulated MOF-Based Material for Synergetic Regulating Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with a large number of active sites and high porosity are considered to be good platforms for the carbon dioxide electroreduction reaction (CO2RR) but with confined low conductivity or low efficiency. Here, Pd-[Bmim]PF6/Cu-BTC with exceptional selectivity and electron-transfer ability is elaborately designed by introducing ionic liquids (ILs) into the MOFs. ILs favor promoting the overall current density of the catalysts, and the introduction of Pd atoms combined with O atoms on the catalyst surface reconfigures into strong Pd-O bonds, improving the desorption efficiency of *CO. The unique structure of the catalyst Pd-[Bmim]PF6/Cu-BTC leads to a significant improvement of the C1 product with a high Faraday efficiency (FE) of 99.36%, especially for carbon monoxide (CO) with an FE of 93.18% (-1.1 VRHE). The exceptional performance of the catalyst is verified by density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and the reduction of the free energy required by *HOCO as a key intermediate for CO production was only 0.12 eV, providing new insights to improve the electrocatalytic performance of MOF-based materials for the CO2RR. In this research, an effective and promising strategy that configures active sites by larger current density is proposed to enhance the efficiency of the CO2RR.

Environmental Stability Determines the Cytotoxicity of Metal-Organic Frameworks to a Nitrogen-Fixing Bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii.

During widespread applications of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), the environmental hazards and risks of MOFs have aroused great concerns. In this study, we aimed to reveal the importance of the environmental stability of MOFs on their toxicity. Two Zn-MOFs, namely, ZIF-8 with high aqueous stability and Zn-BDC with low aqueous stability, were compared directly in the toxicological evaluations of a nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii. Zn-BDC showed strong cytotoxicity at 100 mg/L and higher, inducing growth inhibition, cell apoptosis, structural changes, oxidative damage, and, consequently, loss of nitrogen fixation ability. In contrast, ZIF-8 was nearly nontoxic to A. vinelandii. The transcriptome analysis showed that Zn-BDC directly disturbed the ribosome pathway and lowered the expression level of nitrogen-fixing nif cluster genes. On the other hand, ZIF-8 stress could regulate the flagellar assembly, siderophore group nonribosomal peptide biosynthesis, bacterial chemotaxis, and amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism pathways to promote the cell growth of A. vinelandii. Beyond that, the toxicity of Zn-MOFs to A. vinelandii was associated with the release of Zn2+, but Zn-MOFs were less toxic than the mixtures of their starting materials. Overall, our results suggested that the environmental stability of Zn-MOFs determined their environmental toxicity through different molecular pathways. Designing stable MOFs is preferred due to environment-friendly considerations.

Metal-organic framework-based dual function nanosystems for aluminum detoxification and plant growth in acidic soil

Plants encounter various abiotic stresses throughout growth and development, with aluminum stress emerging as a major global agricultural challenge that hinders plant growth and limits crop yields in acidic soils. In this study, nanomaterials with dual functions, controlled release and adsorption, were constructed to alleviate aluminum toxicity. Specifically, two metal-organic frameworks, UiO-66 and ZIF-8, were used to load naphthylacetic acid and tryptophan, respectively. These two controlled-release systems were then combined with a chitosan-based matrix (NT@CS@UZ) to enable the regulated release of both compounds at distinct rates. Concurrently, the porous structure of these materials facilitates the adsorption of soluble aluminum in the plant rhizosphere. Results show that the acidic environment accelerates ZIF-8 degradation, triggering an early release of tryptophan under aluminum stress conditions. This early release promotes plant growth and alleviates stress damage. Naphthylacetic acid is subsequently released at a slower, sustained rate to stimulate root growth and further mitigate aluminum toxicity in roots. Additionally, NT@CS@UZ effectively adsorbs aluminum ions, limiting Al3+ uptake by plants and creating a low-aluminum barrier to protect roots. These dual function nanomaterials significantly boost crop yield and enhance stress resilience, presenting new avenues for food security and sustainable agricultural practices.

Two-Dimensional CNPs Superstructures Derived from Metal-Organic Frameworks for Electromagnetic Wave Absorption.

Carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) derived from metal-organic frameworks (ZIF-8) are synthesized, which are further self-assembled into mono- or bilayer superstructures for electromagnetic (EM) wave absorption. Furthermore, the effect of ZIF-8 morphology (cubic or rhombic dodecahedral) on the superstructure and EM absorption performance of CNPs is investigated. The as-prepared cubic bilayer superstructure exhibits a higher BET surface area of 526.1 m2/g and a higher pore volume of 0.232 cm3/g than the rhombic dodecahedral monolayer superstructure (30.0 m2/g and 0.051 cm3/g, respectively). As a result, the two-dimensional CNPs with a bilayer structure are able to deliver the highest EM absorption performance with an effective absorption bandwidth of 6.2 GHz at a thickness of merely 2.4 mm. This work provides a new approach to designing and preparing high-performance EM wave absorption materials.

Fast determination of Cd (II) and Co(II) ions in environmental samples after vortex-assisted dispersive solid phase microextraction using ZIF-8

Zeolite imidazolate framework 8 (ZIF-8), which is a special subgroup of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), has gained more interest due to its desirable characteristics. ZIF-8 was synthesized at room temperature to prepare an efficient adsorbent. The synthesized ZIF-8 was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis. This adsorbent was employed for the preconcentration of trace amounts of Cd (II) and Co (II) ions in soil, vegetable juice, and water samples with vortex-assisted dispersive solid phase microextraction (DSPME) before their identification by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS). The experimental data were analyzed by the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm models. The monolayer adsorption capacity of ZIF-8 was found to be 238.10 mg g−1 and 90.90 mg g−1 for Cd (II) and Co (II) ions, respectively. The kinetics of the adsorption were tested using pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion models. The results showed that the adsorption of Cd (II) and Co(II) ions onto ZIF-8 proceeds according to the pseudo-second-order- model. Under the optimum conditions, the method showed a good linear dynamic range (2–2000 µg L−1), (0.9–4000µg L−1) with a lower limit of detection (0.6 µg L−1), (0.27 µg L−1) and preconcentration factor (62.5), (33.33) for Co (II) and Cd(II) respectively. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) were less than 1.0% for 0.5 mg L−1. The method is highly selective as there are no significant interferences from matrix cations and anions even at high concentrations. These results reveal the potential use of the synthesized ZIF-8 as an effective adsorbent and used for preconcentration of Cd(II) and Co(II) ions from environmental samples.

Nanoconfined heterogeneous catalysis triggered by copper oxide supported metal–organic framework UiO-66-NH2/peroxymonosulfate for rapidly removing bisphenol A in water

Nanoconfined heterogeneous catalysis triggered by copper oxide supported metal–organic framework UiO-66-NH2/peroxymonosulfate for rapidly removing bisphenol A in water

Synthesis and utilization of mixed-metal (Zn/Cd) metal–organic frameworks for ultra-trace determination of diazinon and ethion via ion mobility spectrometry

Synthesis and utilization of mixed-metal (Zn/Cd) metal–organic frameworks for ultra-trace determination of diazinon and ethion via ion mobility spectrometry

Low‐Melting Perovskite Glass for Multimodal Anti‐Counterfeiting and X‐Ray Imaging

AbstractGlass, with its unique amorphous properties, offers low thermal conductivity, high catalytic activity, insensitivity to interfacial lattice mismatch, and the absence of grain boundaries. Melt‐quenched organic–inorganic hybrid glass has recently gained significant attention as an emerging material because of its excellent processability and formability. Here, an SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x halide with a low melting point (90 °C) and significant formability is reported. Both the crystalline and glass states of SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x have double broadband emission, and the glass state exhibits negative thermal quenching, which is rare in metal halides. Interestingly, the luminescence properties of SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x glass with different x values differ. This feature is utilized to design multimodal anti‐counterfeiting and information encryption applications. Additionally, The inherent melt processing capability of SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x allows it to be shaped into various forms suitable for practical applications. SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x scintillator screens (diameter 2.2 cm) are successfully prepared by low‐temperature melting, achieving an X‐ray imaging resolution of 18 line pairs per millimeter (18 lp mm−1). This study demonstrates the potential of melt‐processed organic–inorganic hybrid glass SbCl3(C25H46ClN)x in anti‐counterfeiting, information encryption, and X‐ray detection.

TEA Guiding Bimetallic MOF with Oriented Nanosheet Arrays for High-Performance Asymmetric Supercapacitors.

The development of supercapacitors with ultrahigh power density, high energy density, and compatible integration for wearable microelectronic devices is significant but challenging. Herein, a bimetallic metal-organic framework (Ni/Co-MOF) with oriented nanosheets was obtained via triethylamine (TEA) guiding using a hydrothermal treatment, in which the TEA guides the vertically oriented array structures of the Ni/Co-MOF and ensures a fast ion/electron transmission path. Subsequently, an asymmetric supercapacitor was rationally designed by applying the bimetallic MOF cathode and an activated carbon (AC) anode. The obtained Ni/Co-MOF sample offers a high storage capacity of 2034 F g-1 at 0.5 A g-1 by harnessing the optimized Ni/Co-MOF with uniformly oriented nanosheet arrays. The constructed asymmetric supercapacitors exhibited a large voltage window of 1.4 V in 3.0 M KOH and an outstanding energy density of 29.5 Wh kg-1 at a power density of 199.1 W kg-1 was obtained, with a remarkable capacitance retention of 89% after 2000 cycles.

Fluorescence sensor array for highly sensitive pattern recognition of biothiols in food based on tricolor upconversion luminescence metal-organic frameworks

Fluorescence nanomaterial sensors have exhibited excellent application potential in biothiols analyses. The fluorescence sensor arrays constructed from upconversion luminescence metal-organic frameworks nanocomposites (LMOFs) can provide impressive discrimination and exquisite fingerprinting capabilities for extremely similar analytes. Herein, an upconversion fluorescence sensor array based on LMOFs featuring UiO-type metal-organic frameworks-functionalized lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles was proposed, wherein Cu2+ can make the fluorescence quenching of LMOFs and preferentially bind biothiols to recover fluorescence in different degrees forming unique fingerprinting. The fluorescence sensor array displayed an excellent pattern recognition for five biothiols (glutathione, homocysteine, N-acetylcysteine, and L/D-cysteine) even at 50 µM by linear discriminant analysis, and the discernment for the enantiomers of L/D-cysteine, as well as the accurate identification (90.0% accuracy) of biothiols in food samples (tea beverage and white wine). Such fluorescence sensor array might provide a simple and efficient detection method for biothiols.

Tailored Metal-Organic Framework-Based Nanozymes for Enhanced Enzyme-Like Catalysis.

The global crisis of bacterial infections is exacerbated by the escalating threat of microbial antibiotic resistance. Nanozymes promise to provide ingenious solutions. Here, we reported a homogeneous catalytic structure of Pt nanoclusters with finely tuned metal-organic framework (ZIF-8) channel structures for the treatment of infected wounds. Catalytic site normalization showed that the active site of the Pt aggregates structure with fine-tuned pore modifications structure had a catalytic capacity of 14.903 ×105 min-1, which was 18.7 times higher than that of the Pt particles in monodisperse state in ZIF-8 (0.793 ×105 min-1). In situ tests revealed that the change from homocleavage to heterocleavage of hydrogen peroxide at the interface of the nanozyme was one of the key reasons for the improvement of nanozyme activity. Density-functional theory and kinetic simulations of the reaction interface jointly determine the role of the catalytic center and the substrate channel together. Metabolomics analysis showed that the developed nanozyme, working in conjunction with reactive oxygen species, could effectively block energy metabolic pathways within bacteria, leading to spontaneous apoptosis and bacterial rupture. This pioneering study elucidates new ideas for the regulation of artificial enzyme activity and provides new perspectives for the development of efficient antibiotic substitutes.

Novel NiCoMn MOFs/Ag citrate nanocomposites for high-performance asymmetric supercapacitor applications

Addressing the challenges posed by the global energy crisis, this research article explores the pivotal role of novel NiCoMn MOFs/Ag Citrate Nanocomposites in advancing high-performance asymmetric supercapacitor applications. This study delves into the synthesis of an efficient supercapacitor electrode material using a nanocomposite, denoted as MAx (where x = 1-3), combining NiCoMn metal-organic frameworks (MOFs, represented as M) with Ag-Citrate (notated as A). This synthesis employs an ultrasonication-assisted solvothermal approach. The XRD and SEM analyses authenticate the presence of anticipated phases and elements, revealing a seamless integration of the two components. Electrochemical assessments suggest that introducing Ag-citrate significantly augments the charge storage prowess of the nanocomposites. Specifically, the MA1 nanocomposite showcases a remarkable specific capacity of 762 C/g at 0.5 Ag−1, marking enhancements of 83 % and 10 % compared to pure Ag-citrate and unaltered MOFs, respectively. Furthermore, the asymmetric supercapacitor device based on this nanocomposite delivers optimal metrics: a specific capacity of 291.6 C/g at 2 Ag−1, an energy density of 61 Whkg−1, a power density of 1500 Wkg−1, a Coulombic efficiency of 98.5 %, and an enduring stability of 101 % over 4000 cycles. This exploration accentuates the significant promise of NiCoMn MOFs/Ag-Citrate nanocomposites as efficient, economical, and durable supercapacitors for a spectrum of energy storage needs.

6-Trifluoromethylnicotinamide Bilaterally Anchored All Cations Implementing Efficient and Humidity-Stable Perovskite Solar Cells.

For organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (PSCs), the volatilization of organic components and the presence of undercoordinated Pb2+ ions are the primary causes of device stability imbalance. These factors also serve as significant determinants that restrict the commercialization scale of PSCs. Here, 6-trifluoromethylnicotinamide (TNA) molecules, featuring amide and trifluoromethyl groups at both ends, were introduced as Lewis additives into the precursor solution of perovskite to anchor all cation defect sites and optimize the crystallization process of perovskite. Theoretical calculations confirmed that the -NH2 and C═O groups within the amide group on one side of the TNA molecule synergistically passivated the undercoordinated Pb2+ ions, whereas the trifluoromethyl group on the other side formed hydrogen bonds with the organic components of perovskite. The scorpion-like bilateral all-cation anchoring ability of TNA molecules was further substantiated through experimental characterization. Upon optimization of the TNA treatment concentration, a perovskite film characterized by large grains and a reduced defect density of states was achieved. The photovoltaic performance of PSCs incorporating TNA exhibited significant enhancement with an increase in efficiency from 22.42% (Control) to 24.15%. Under a harsh high-humidity environment, the comprehensive cation passivation effect of TNA significantly hindered the decomposition and phase transition of perovskite films, thereby ensuring excellent humidity stability for the PSCs.

Large‐Area Metal–Organic Framework Glasses for Efficient X‐Ray Detection

AbstractCutting‐edge techniques utilizing continuous films made from pure, novel semiconductive materials offer promising pathways to achieve high performance and cost‐effectiveness for X‐ray detection. Semiconductive metal–organic framework (MOF) glass films are known for their remarkably smooth surface morphology, straightforward synthesis, and capability for large‐area fabrication, presenting a new direction for high‐performance X‐ray detectors. Here, a novel material centered on MOF glasses for highly uniform glass film fabrication customized for X‐ray detection is introduced. MOF glasses, composed of zinc and imidazole derivatives, enable the transition from solid to liquid at low temperatures, facilitating the straightforward preparation of large‐area and continuous MOF films with high mobility for X‐ray device fabrication. Remarkably, MOF glass detectors demonstrate an exceptional sensitivity of 112.8 µC Gyair−1 cm−2 and a detection limit of 0.41 µGyair s−1, making them one of the most sensitive and with the best detection limits reported to date for MOF X‐ray detectors. Clear X‐ray images are successfully conducted using these developed MOF glass detectors for the first time. This breakthrough in X‐ray sensitivity, and detection limit along with the spatial imaging resolution establishes a new standard for developing large‐area and efficient MOF‐based X‐ray detectors with practical applications in medical and security screening.

3D‐Printed In Situ Growth of Bilayer MOF Hydrogels for Accelerated Osteochondral Defect Repair

AbstractRepairing osteochondral (OC) defect presents a significant challenge due to the intricate structural requirements and the unpredictable differentiation pathways of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). To address this challenge, a novel biomimetic OC hydrogel scaffold is developed that features a structure of soft and hard components. This scaffold incorporates bilayer metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), specifically ZIF‐67 in the upper layer and ZIF‐8 in the lower layer, achieved through an in situ printing process. This configuration enables the spatial and temporal modulation of BMSC differentiation by controlling the release of Co2⁺ and Zn2⁺. The results demonstrate that the bilayer MOF hydrogels significantly outperform hydrogels that either lack MOFs or contain a single type of MOF in enhancing repair outcomes in rabbit models of knee OC defects. The improved regenerative efficacy is attributed to the distinct chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation cues provided by the bilayer MOFs, effectively guiding BMSCs toward enhanced tissue regeneration. This customizable biomimetic OC hydrogel scaffold not only opens new avenues for innovative therapeutic strategies but also holds great promise for widespread clinical applications.

Non‐selective Defect Minimization towards Highly Efficient Metal‐Organic Framework Membranes for Gas Separation

The persistence of defects in polycrystalline membranes poses a substantial obstacle to reaching the theoretical molecular sieving separation and scaling up production. The low membrane selectivity in most reported literature is largely due to the unavoidable non‐selective defects during synthesis, leading to a mismatch between the well‐defined pore structure of polycrystalline molecular sieve materials. This paper presents a novel approach for minimizing non‐selective defects in metal‐organic framework (MOF) membranes by a constricted crystal growth strategy in a confined environment. The in‐situ ZIF formation using the densely packed seeding array between the substrate and the pre‐grown top ZIF layer yields a confined membrane interlayer, which is highly uniform with a tightly packed crystalline structure. Unlike uncontrolled crystal growth, we purposely regulate the interlayer membrane growth in the direction parallel to the substrate. A notable 99% decrease in defects in the confined interlayer was achieved compared to the random‐grown top layer, leading to a ~353% increment in H2/N2 selectivity over the non‐confined reference MOF membrane. The performance of this new membrane sits in the optimal range above the Robeson upper bound. The membrane boasts a balanced high H2 permeability (>5000 Barrer) and selectivity (>50), significantly surpassing peer ZIF membranes.

Enhanced activity of enzymes encapsulated in spheres metal azolate framework-7 with defects

Developing metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with specific structures is critical for improving the activity of embedded enzymes, and defects may be one of the effective methods. Several methods have been demonstrated to be effective in creating defects in MOFs, including post-synthetic treatments, the use of acid as a modulator, and the use of ordinary or thermally sensitive linkers. However, these methods necessitate the utilization of additional substances. Metal azolate framework-7 (MAF-7) is a kind of MOF that was formed by the coordination of Zn2+ with 3-methyl-1,2,4-triazole (Hmtz). This paper presents a method for the preparation of defect MAF-7 by changing the sequence of reactants without the introduction of additional substances. The defects were characterized by a range of techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and powder X-ray diffraction. The activity of microcystinase A (MlrA) encapsulated in defective MAF-7 (CMlrA@DMAF-7) was found to be significantly increased in comparison to non-porous MAF-7 (NMAF-7), and was largely unaffected by alterations in synthesis conditions. It is also noteworthy that lysozyme (LZ) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP), which are commonly used in industry, also demonstrated enhanced activity when encapsulated in DMAF-7. It was therefore anticipated that modifying the sequence of reactant addition would be a straightforward and simple method of introducing defects into MAF-7, thereby improving enzyme utilization.

Interface Engineering of Network‐Like 1D/2D (NHCNT/Ni─MOF) Hybrid Nanoarchitecture for Electrocatalytic Water Splitting

AbstractHere, integrated functional components into a hybrid heterostructure via highly stabilized network‐like interconnected electronic nanoarchitecture of 1D N‐doped holey‐carbon nanotube (NHCNT) with 2D nickel─metal–organic framework (Ni─MOF) nanosheets are developed as high‐performance electrocatalyst for overall water splitting. The NHCNT promoting electron transport pathways in electrocatalyst, and formation of holes in nanotubes further enables excellent diffusion of ions for promoting the overall reaction rate. An excellent combination of 1D/2D structure of NHCNT/Ni─MOF‐4 electrocatalyst exhibits excellent oxygen evolution reaction (η10 = 207.8 mV, and Tafel = 62.6 mV dec−1) and reasonable hydrogen evolution reaction (η10 = 159.8 mV, and Tafel = 107.69 mV dec−1) activity with consistent and stable performance in a 1 m KOH. The highly interconnected network structure contains Ni2+ and Ni3+ species in the NHCNT/Ni─MOF‐4 electrocatalyst, which possesses high specific surface area (SSA) (235.53 m2 g−1), electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) (796.2 cm2), mass activity (4.76 mA mg−1), and turnover frequency (3.99 × 10−2 s−1), which provide remarkable electrocatalytic performance via generating synergy between the NHCNT and Ni─MOF. For overall water splitting, NHCNT/Ni─MOF‐4 attains a low cell voltage (1.77 V@10 mA cm−2).

Ultrathin metal–organic framework synergizes with carbon quantum dots improving photoelectrochemical water oxidation and tetracycline hydrochloride degradation performance

Finding clean dual functional materials which can simultaneously alleviate energy and environmental issues is currently a research hotspot. In our work, TiO2/CQDs/NH2-MIL-125 photoanode system was constructed to explore the application of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) materials in water splitting and biomedical wastewater treatment. The photocurrent density of the optimal TiO2/CQDs/NH2-MIL-125 photoanode reaches 1.7 mA/cm2 at 1.23 V vs. RHE, which is about 1.8 times that of pristine TiO2. More importantly, optimized photoanode displays an excellent remove ratio toward tetracycline hydrochloride of 74 % within 60 min. Through mechanism exploration, the excellent performance is attributed to the narrow band gap of NH2-MIL-125 widens the light absorption range to the visible region. Additionally, the specific electron conduction behavior of CQDs and the type Ⅱ heterojunction between TiO2/NH2-MIL-125 inhibited the photogenerated electron-hole recombination. This work explores the application of photoelectrochemical (PEC) materials in environmental catalytic clean production.