Initial Public Offerings Process Research Articles

IPOs and knowledge management practices: a systematic literature review and future research agenda

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the connection between initial public offerings (IPOs) and knowledge management (KM). Specifically, the manuscript critically examines the literature on IPOs and KM underlying how KM practices influence the IPO processes of companies. Design/methodology/approach The authors employ a systematic literature review methodology to identify and thematically investigate 21 articles published in journals by the Chartered Association of Business Schools (ranked 2, 3, 4, 4*). Findings This research sheds new light on the relevance of KM practices in the context of IPOs. Specifically, the authors identify four crucial aspects concerning companies that opt for an IPO: (i) reasons for IPO and the role of KM; (ii) IPO process and the role of KM; (iii) underpricing and the role of KM; (iv) post-IPO and the role of KM. Originality/value This paper shows the pivotal role of effective KM strategies in fostering a successful IPO. Additionally, it provides practical recommendations for companies seeking to effectively harness their intellectual assets during the IPO process.

Mamaearth IPO: the pricing dilemma of a startup

Learning outcomes After working through the case and assignment questions, students will be able to recognize essential considerations for the initial public offerings (IPO) decision, compare different types of fundraising options for startups, evaluate the free pricing regime for IPO pricing, examine the pricing process of IPOs, explore the issue of valuation of IPOs and assess the decision choices of the founder regarding IPO given the trade-offs and market conditions. Case overview/synopsis The case study explores the dilemma of Ghazal Alagh, the co-founder and chief innovation officer of Mamaearth, a direct-to-consumer babycare and skincare unicorn, regarding its IPO decision. Mamaearth had filed the draft offer document with SEBI in December 2022, and Ghazal was busy engaging with the investment bankers for the upcoming IPO. However, the weak market sentiments and shelving of IPO plans by many startups were forcing her to think about facing the possibility of postponing the IPO or continuing the IPO process but at lower valuations. The case study provides an opportunity to explore a startup’s financing choices. It allows for discussion of various IPO challenges from the perspectives of founders, venture investors, regulators, investment bankers and new IPO investors. Complexity academic level This case study is best suited for senior undergraduate- and graduate-level business school students in courses focusing on entrepreneurship, corporate finance, financial management, strategic management and investment banking. Subject code CSS1: Accounting and finance. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available for educators only.

CEO characteristics and R&D expenditure of IPOs in China

In the rapidly evolving landscape of Mainland China's stock market, there is a substantial correlation between the research and development (R&D) spending of companies that are going through initial public offerings (IPOs) and the characteristics of the CEO. This study aims to investigate how CEO traits influence the allocation of resources towards R&D activities within the context of IPOs in Mainland China. The CEO plays a pivotal role in shaping the strategic direction and innovation agenda of companies, especially during the IPO process where firms seek to raise capital and expand their operations. Policymakers must comprehend the influence of CEO attributes on research and development spending, investors, and managers seeking to foster innovation and sustainable growth in Mainland Chinese firms. This research will focus on analyzing CEO traits such as educational background, prior experience, age, tenure, risk aversion, and management style, and their influence on the decision-making process regarding R&D investment. This study intends to determine significant links between R&D expenditure and characteristics of CEOs by looking at a sample of IPOs in the stock market of Mainland China. The analysis takes into account many factors like industry competition, market dynamics, regulatory environment, and firm-specific traits. Data on CEO traits, company finances, and R&D spending will be analysed using quantitative techniques like regression analysis and event research procedures. Furthermore, qualitative research techniques like case studies and interviews will offer deeper understandings of the contextual elements influencing the IPO market in Mainland China as well as the mechanisms underpinning these linkages. All things considered, this study will advance knowledge of how CEO traits affect R&D spending in the particular setting of initial public offerings (IPOs) on the stock market of Mainland China. The findings will offer valuable insights for policymakers, investors, and managers navigating the complexities of fostering innovation and sustainable growth in Mainland Chinese firms undergoing IPOs.

Аномалии IPO: влияние на эффективность первичных публичных предложений

The article explores the significant role of anomalies in the market for initial public offerings (IPOs), affecting both short-term and long-term stock outcomes upon entering the public market. It addresses the overarching issue faced by investors regarding the low efficiency of IPOs, characterized by a decline in securities’ value immediately after public listing. The article examines various anomalies and factors affecting IPO outcomes and discusses strategies for successful risk management and achieving desired investment results. It highlights the importance of considering underexplored aspects such as financial reporting distortions, information asymmetry, and insider manipulations, which are often encountered in IPOs but rarely studied in depth. This investigation into IPO anomalies aims to provide investors and companies with insights for making more informed decisions during IPOs and adapting their strategies according to market conditions, thereby contributing to a broader understanding of factors affecting IPO profitability. By recognizing and addressing these factors, investors and companies can better navigate the IPO process and achieve more favorable outcomes. Further research is needed to delve deeper into the complexities of IPO anomalies and their implications for market efficiency.

Stock exchange oversight and investor quotes: Evidence from initial public offering comment letters in China

This study investigates whether and how changes in the information environment resulting from the issuance of comment letters during the initial public offering (IPO) process, as is newly implemented by stock exchanges in China, affect IPO quotes from institutional investors. We find a significant and negative association between IPO review intensity, measured as the number of comment letter questions issued by the stock exchange or the change in length between the initial and final prospectuses, and the number of quotes received by the firm from institutional investors. Further analyses reveal that IPO review intensity is negatively associated with the divergence of quotes received from institutional investors. Additional analyses reveal that institutional investors tend to pay more attention to questions indicating regulatory oversight than to questions requesting factual information disclosure. Overall, the findings of this study provide support for the hypothesis that the issuance of comment letters, as a part of the interaction between stock exchanges and equity-issuing firms during the IPO process, plays a significant oversight role and consequently influences investor decision-making.

Do Initial Public Offering Strategies Improve Firm's Performance? Evidence from Emerging Country

The firm’s decision to become a public firm is very interesting to analyze and reveal its performance. This study aims to reveal the firm’s performance in the short and medium term after conducting an initial public offering (IPO). In addition, the choice of the IPO strategy, that are share-only IPO (SIPO) or package IPO (PIPO) also affects the firm’s performance. Annual reports of up to 3 years of 155 companies conducting IPOs from 2010 to 2016 are used to examine the short-term and medium-term impacts of the IPO process. A very surprising result of this study is that IPO companies cannot show better performance in the short and medium term after the IPO, including State-Owned Enterprises (SOE), it gets worse if the company decides to use PIPO as a strategy during the IPO.
 Keywords: initial public offering, firm performance, share-only IPO, package IPO

Analysts’ Advice on IPOs and Regulations: An Analysis of United States and European Markets

Using recommendations and target prices on initial public offerings (IPOs), we examine the impact of regulations in the United States (US) and European Union (EU) markets that were aimed at curbing conflicts of interest in sell-side research. Conflicted analysts, proxied by whether their brokerage houses (henceforth brokers) acted as lead or co-managers in the IPO process, issued more optimistic recommendations in the US and EU markets in the pre-regulatory period. However, this extra optimism is absent after the adoption of regulations. A similar pattern emerges when examining the returns implied from US IPO target prices. Investors seem to capture the pattern, as they discount optimistic recommendations from conflicted analysts before, but not after, the new regulations. Using the staggered implementation of the new regulations—whereby US regulations take place strictly before any changes in the EU markets—we show that US brokers take the new modus operandi to Europe. In the time between the passage of US and EU regulations, US brokers in the lead role acted similarly in Europe to how they acted in the US. The EU brokers continued with their optimistic projections until the implementation of the local regulations.

Make it easy: the effect of prospectus readability on IPO performance

PurposeUnderstanding the determinants of a corporate initial public offering (IPO) success is essential for reducing investors' valuation uncertainty when participating in share offerings. In this sense, this study contributes to the existing debate by examining IPO prospectus readability. The authors specifically investigate how clear and more informative insights into pure corporate key financial numbers can lead to a higher valuation for the company after the listing process.Design/methodology/approachThrough a sample of European IPOs, the authors employ a cross-sectional regression to test the relationship between prospectus readability through the Flesch reading ease (FRE) score and companies' market-to-book ratio at the period end date after the listing process.FindingsThe study findings show a positive impact of higher readability on the post-IPO market-to-book ratio. Thus, clear and more informative communication results in stocks being traded at a premium to their book value. This study presents a concrete call for firms to increase corporate documents’ readability to mitigate the risk of withdrawing or spoiling corporate market access. Specifically, enhanced clarity and transparency increase investors' confidence, facilitating a better understanding of companies' intrinsic value and the overall IPO process. The authors conducted several tests to validate the results.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is among the first works to explore the relationship between the readability of corporate prospectus and the sustained IPO success in the European context.

Political Uncertainty and Initial Public Offerings: A Literature Review

The literature on the influence of political and policy-related uncertainties on financial aspects has gained an impetus in the last two decades. This study adds to the existing literature by reviewing the impact of political uncertainty on initial public offerings (IPOs). We aim to provide a holistic overview of the past research in this domain, identify the potential research gaps, and explore them further. We performed a bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer to identify the major keywords used, the most cited papers, the authors, and the major countries where research in this domain has taken place. Our perspective on the current state of the literature has been threefold. First, considering the importance of market timing in the firm’s decision to go public, it was seen that firms had shown an unwillingness to come up with an IPO during periods of high political uncertainty. Second, political uncertainty has shown its influence in all the phases of the IPO process; however, political connections and donations mitigate this effect. Third, the research in this domain is still at a very nascent stage and is mainly restricted to China and the US. Thus, we believe that there are several areas that are yet to be explored.

PENGARUH DEBT TO EQUITY RATIO, INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL, EARNINGS PER SHARE, RETURN ON EQUITY, RETURN ON ASSET TERHADAP NILAI PERUSAHAAN YANG MELAKUKAN IPO

This study aims to provide empirical evidence regarding the influence of financial capital, intellectual capital, and profitability on the value of companies undergoing an Initial Public Offering (IPO). The study used a sample of 84 non-financial industry companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange from 2013 to 2019. The method of analysis employed was multiple linear regression using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22 on Windows. The results of the study indicate that financial capital and intellectual capital, along with profitability (proxied by Return on Assets - ROA), have a significant positive impact on the value of companies undergoing an IPO. In other words, higher levels of financial and intellectual capital, as well as better profitability (measured by ROA), are associated with higher company values during the IPO process. However, it was also found that profitability (proxied by Return on Equity - ROE) has a significant negative impact on the value of companies during an IPO. This implies that higher ROE might negatively affect the company's value in the context of an IPO.

Cultural communication differences in initial public offering documentation: the case of China

PurposeWritten communication differences across cultures can set the tone for effective or disastrous business relationships. Although English has been the go-to language in business, managers from different countries can significantly differ in how they convey the firms' information. This study explored these differences by examining the documentation presented by foreign corporations as part of their initial public offering (IPO) in the USA, particularly Chinese firms.Design/methodology/approachThis work examined cultural-related differences in written communications by looking at foreign corporations' descriptions of their strengths, strategies and challenges included in F-1 documents submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission as part of the IPO process. The sample consisted of 97 American depositary receipts (ADRs) identified in the Bank of New York Mellon's ADR directory from 2003 to 2015.FindingsThis study found that Chinese firms significantly differ from other countries' firms in depicting their strengths, strategies and challenges.Research limitations/implicationsLimitations have to do with the sample size. Future research may address this by considering other depositary markets, not just the USA.Originality/valueThe results will be significant for potential ADRs investors; they must be conscious of these differences in the written documentation submitted by Chinese firms compared to other foreign firms. The market should also be aware of these differences, as the Chinese seem less open to sharing information about the under spinning of their operations and financial prospects.

Institutional Investors' Response to Earnings Management Before Initial Public Offering in Poland

The aim of the paper is to analyse the association between the use of accrual-based and real earnings management practices before the company goes public and the decision of institutional investors on buying or refraining from buying shares offered in initial public offering (IPO). The sample consists of 258 Polish new stock companies over the period 2005-2020. We find that such companies refrain from massive earnings management in the pre-IPO period: both real and accrual-based. However, we find evidence that the presence of institutional investors in the IPO is related to earnings inflation (selling, general and administrative expenses). Our study contributes to the debate on the role of institutional ownership in the IPO process in Central and Eastern Europe.

Why and when does CFO ranking in top management team informal hierarchy affect entrepreneurial firm initial public offering fraud?

AbstractWe build upon the approach/inhibition theory of power to explain why and when CFO ranking in top management team (TMT) informal hierarchy may be related to entrepreneurial firm initial public offering (IPO) fraud, a typical type of unethical behaviour with potential benefits and costs. Our theory explains why CFOs with high rankings in TMT informal hierarchy tend to have a high level of psychological sense of power and may pay more attention to potential benefits rather than costs of unethical behaviours, resulting in a high likelihood to engage in fraud during IPO process. We further suggest that the positive relationship between CFO ranking in TMT informal hierarchy and entrepreneurial firms IPO fraud is weakened by CEO narcissism (internal environment) and environmental dynamism (external environment), respectively. Based on a sample of Chinese entrepreneurial firms listed in growth enterprise market from 2010 to 2017, we find support for our theoretical predictions. By focusing on the ‘specialist’ executives – CFOs – the findings suggest the need to consider rankings in TMT informal hierarchy when analysing the antecedents of IPO fraud.

PRINSIP KETERBUKAAN INFORMASI (FULL DISCLOSURE) DALAM PROSES IPO PADA MASA PANDEMI COVID-19

The background of this research issue is based on the importance of information disclosure to companies that conduct public offerings in the capital market as a determinant for investors to make decisions because the Covid-19 pandemic is one of the extraordinary events that greatly affect several sectors, one of which is in the capital market. This thesis aims to review the fulfillment of the principle of information disclosure in the IPO (Initial Public Offering) process during the Covid-19 pandemic. This research is library research, examines the momentum that is happening at this time and relates the prevailing laws and regulations to support research. The analysis method used is normative juridical by using statute approach, as well as conceptual approach. In this study using three main legal materials used, namely, the primary legal material consists of Law No. 8 of 1995 on Capital Market, Law No. 8 of 1995 on Capital Market, Law No. 21 of 2011 on Financial Services Authority, and Bapepam Regulation Number IX.A.2 on Registration Procedures in the Framework of Public Offerings. The results showed that OJK issued several regulations for the capital market sector due to the Covid-19 pandemic that had an impact on companies and investors, but OJK has not issued specific regulations for the application of information disclosure principles in the IPO process during the pandemic so that there are still existing regulations related.

The effectiveness of founder signals and firm performance during the IPO process

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the impact of a firm’s governance characteristics on the signals released during the initial public offering (IPO) process. This paper focuses on the role of the firm’s founder and how different signals convey or diminish agency issues of adverse selection and moral hazard prior to IPO. This study also explores the performance impact (underpricing) of firm founder involvement on signal effectiveness.Design/methodology/approachThis paper examines 122 firms during the IPO process to determine the influence that the founder’s presence, position and ownership has on signaling behaviors as well as on firm performance.FindingsThe authors find that founders influence how often the firm files amendments to the prospectus. Furthermore, the results suggest that agency-reducing signals are complicated and can interact to enhance either positive or negative signals that impact underpricing at IPO.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings offer insights concerning how signalers can more effectively manage multiple signals that may interact negatively with firm characteristics. This study also provides contributions to both signaling and agency theories, discusses implications for practitioners and suggests opportunities for future research.Practical implicationsThis has important implications for founders and managers of firms approaching IPO. The results suggest that founders are better off filing fewer addendums to their S-1 during the IPO process as this decreases underpricing. Underwriters and investors will be interested in these outcomes as identifying signals is an important factor when pricing firm valuation. Similarly, investors seek to identify firms that have a higher likelihood of underpricing because underpricing increases investor recognition and subsequent long-term impact on performance.Originality/valueThe findings offer insights concerning how signalers can more effectively manage multiple signals that may interact negatively with firm characteristics. The authors extend research in entrepreneurship and marketing by exploring indirect ways firms can communicate to investors using signaling, to increase value during the IPO process. This study provides contributions to both signaling and agency theories, discusses implications for practitioners and suggests opportunities for future research.

Competitive threat and strategic disclosure during the IPO quiet period

This study examines the disclosure behavior of rival firms identified by an initial public offering (IPO) candidate in its registration statement. We hypothesize that identified rivals have incentives to preempt the competitive effects of the IPO and do so by disclosing more positive information during the IPO quiet period when the IPO candidate faces communication restrictions. We find that the tone of disclosures by identified rivals becomes more positive during the quiet period, and reverses after the quiet period. We also find that identified rivals initiate highly positive press releases about their product market condition during the quiet period, with the tone reversal being mainly driven by identified rivals experiencing their competitor’s IPO withdrawal. Together, these results suggest that identified rivals’ concerns over product market competition drive their strategic disclosure behavior. Further evidence indicates that this behavior hurts the IPO candidate and benefits the identified rivals. Thus, while protecting investors and facilitating market efficiency, this quiet period regulation can become an opportunity for industry rivals to influence the IPO process and market competition.

Persistence of pre-IPO earnings of new companies from CEE stock markets

Research background: A company?s earnings are one of the main determinants of investment decisions on the stock market. Thus, the reliability of disclosed financial information is crucial for the efficient allocation of capital. Unfortunately, reported earnings are an economic category susceptible to manipulation. This problem grows especially in the case of an initial public offering (IPO), as there is significant information asymmetry. Purpose of the article: The main aim of the paper is to assess the persistence of earnings reported by companies in the IPO process and to empirically identify financial characteristics associated with persistence of earnings. The usefulness of financial information is directly related to the issue of earnings quality. Therefore, this paper contributes to the stream of study on the quality of financial reporting of new stock companies. Methods: I employ a simple single-factor regression model to recognize the earnings persistence in new stock companies. Pre-IPO earnings are the explanatory variable. Then, I use multiple regression analysis to identify factors that influence this metric of reported earnings quality. Findings & value added: Using a sample of companies from stock exchange markets in Central and Eastern Europe (i.e., the Warsaw Stock Exchange, the Bulgarian Stock Exchange, the Bucharest Stock Exchange, the Belgrade Stock Exchange, the Prague Stock Exchange) that went public between 2010 and 2018, I find that, generally, pre-IPO earnings hold higher persistence compared to earnings reported in the year of the IPO. Profitability seems to be a factor that significantly influences this feature. Thus, the results contribute to corporate theory and practice facing insufficient empirical evidence on the issue of sustaining pre-IPO profitability in the long term, additionally putting these concerns in the context of the economic environment of European emerging stock markets.

Shariah vs non-shariah IPO underpricing: evidence from Indonesia Stock Exchange

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the effect of shariah status on initial public offering (IPO) underpricing, long-term performance and relationship between short-term and long-term IPO performance, and attempt to gain an insight into the nature of shariah IPO underpricing: a signal or an overreaction.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses IPOs during 1990–2018 from Indonesia. This study uses clustered regressions to address clustering phenomenon in IPO. To investigate long-term performance, this study uses cumulative returns, cumulative abnormal returns and Fama–French three factor regressions. This study also runs cross-sectional regressions on the relationship between short and long-term performances.FindingsThis study finds that shariah status reduces lowers non-trading returns (return from offer to open prices), suggesting that shariah status may reduce information asymmetry and compensation. This study finds that both shariah and non-shariah IPOs underperform the benchmarks, with shariah IPOs underperform more. Further analysis shows a negative relationship between initial return and long-term performance for both shariah and non-shariah IPOs, whereas the negative relationship is stronger for shariah IPOs. The results indicate that shariah compliance help reduce information asymmetry; however, shariah compliance does not necessarily signal quality. Instead, shariah compliance seems to induce investor sentiment, resulting in underperformance and reversal patterns in the long run.Research limitations/implicationsThe results have various implications. Issuers may use shariah screening to lower underpricing. Investors may manage their investment horizons to mitigate IPO underperformance. Future research is needed to understand the nature of short and long-term performance of shariah IPO across countries. The use of ex-ante shariah definition becomes our limitation. This study also does not use buy and hold return to investigate long-term performance.Practical implicationsThe results have various implications. Issuers may use shariah screening to lower underpricing. The results show that sharia certification may play an important role in the IPO process. However, sharia status induces individual investors, leading to more overreaction in the long term. Thus, companies need to balance between sharia certification and overreaction in the long term. Investors may manage their investment horizons to mitigate IPO underperformance.Originality/valueThis paper extends studies on the effect of shariah status on IPO performance using Indonesia data. Using non-trading returns, this study provides sharper analysis on the underpricing study. This study shows that shariah status leads to an overreaction, instead of a signal for quality.

Ambiguous Signals and Information Asymmetry in the Initial Public Offering Process: Examining Ownership Concentration, Process Time, and Underpricing

Initial public offerings (IPOs) represent an important stage of development for many firms as they try to gain access to the resources needed for growth and development. Due to the information asymmetry that accompanies the process, there is extensive research examining what factors might signal quality to potential investors such that the IPO might be more optimally valuated and priced. Herein, we hypothesize and empirically explore how a mixed or ambiguous signal about a firm—the signal of ownership concentration in this case—might be overcome with more opportunities for information disclosure and, thus, lessen underpricing; IPO stocks tend to be underpriced (i.e., the offer price of a stock is lower than the inherent market value), which means that owner’s “leave money on the table.” Using a generalized structural equation model of data on 601 U.S. IPO firms, we find support for our model by demonstrating that longer IPO process times (i.e., days from the IPO firm’s filing date to the actual issue date)—representing opportunities to disclose and disseminate information—act as a mediator between ownership concentration and underpricing. Further, we show that the age of the firm also influences this process model arguing that more historical data and other information is more readily available to the potential investor with increased firm age. Overall, our study contributes to the literature by demonstrating how more disclosure and dissemination of relevant information might reduce asymmetries associated with more ambiguous or difficult-to-interpret signals and improve outcomes.

Registration Reform and the Role of Political Connections in the Initial Public Offering Process: Evidence From China.

Registration system reform is a significant and important event in the marketization of the Chinese stock market. Using social network theory, we examine how this institutional change affects the function of the network in initial public offering (IPO) activities. As an exogenous event, registration system reform provides us a good condition to conduct Different-in-Different analysis. Using 1,364 eligible samples of IPO applications in Chinese stock market from 2016 to 2021, the results show that the enterprise’s political connections (PCs) have a positive impact on IPO approval. However, registration system reform mitigates the role of PCs in IPO approval. In particular, attenuation of the efficiency of PCs under the registration system mainly exists in older firms that have long relationships with the government. The registration system can weaken the positive impact of PCs on IPO approval, even under high economic policy uncertainty where endorsements by the government are most effective. Furthermore, under the current Chinese double-track system, which includes both an approval system and a registration system, we find that enterprises with PCs are more likely to stay in the approval system to go public in the multiple application rounds, while enterprises that are not politically connected are more likely to switch the issuance system used from the approval system to the registration system. Lastly, we find that intermediate business connections, as an alternative network, can significantly improve the probability of their clients’ IPO approval, and that registration system reform has strengthened the function of intermediate business connections in IPO approval.