Inhibitory Control Scores Research Articles

Associations between types of care and parenting practice and social-emotional development among Asian American young children

PurposeThis study examined the associations between types of preschool child care and parenting practices and social-emotional outcomes among Asian American kindergarten-age children. MethodBased on the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-K: 2011 (n = 1530), types of care (Head Start, school-based child care, private center-based, and informal/exclusive parental care) and parenting practices (parental expectation, parental investment, and parenting teaching behaviors) were examined for their associations with children’s social-emotional skills (approach to learning, social skills, child-teacher relationship scores, and children’s behavior questions). ResultsCompared to children cared for by informal/exclusive parental care, children who attended school-based care had higher approach to learning skills and focused attention skills, and those who enrolled Head Start had lower externalizing problem behavior scores. Children who frequently read books showed positive social-emotional development (higher approach to learning, self-control, focused attention, and inhibitory control scores and lower externalizing problem behavior scores). ImplicationsAlthough enrolling in formal center-based care at preschool age had positive associations with Asian American children’s social-emotional skills, Asian American children were less likely to enroll in formal center-based care, including Head Start. Asian American parents should be informed of their eligibility for and the availability of formal center-based care, as well as the importance of parental-child interaction to promote their children’s positive social-emotional skills.

Evaluation of a tablet-based assessment tool for measuring cognition among children 4-6 years of age in Ghana.

ObjectivesTo investigate several basic psychometric properties, including construct, convergent and discriminant validity, of the tablet‐based Rapid Assessment of Cognitive and Emotional Regulation (RACER) among children aged 4–6 years in Ghana.MethodsWe investigated whether RACER tasks administered to children in Ghana could successfully reproduce expected patterns of performance previously found in high‐income countries on similar tasks assessing inhibitory control (e.g., slower responses on inhibition trials), declarative memory (e.g., higher accuracy on previously seen items), and procedural memory (e.g., faster responses on sequence blocks). Next, we assessed the validity of declarative memory and inhibitory control scores by examining associations of these scores with corresponding paper‐based test scores and increasing child age. Lastly, we examined whether RACER was more sensitive than paper‐based tests to environmental risk factors common in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs).ResultsOf the 966 children enrolled, more than 96% completed the declarative memory and inhibitory control tasks; however, around 30% of children were excluded from data analysis on the procedural memory task due to missing more than half of trials. The performance of children in Ghana replicated previously documented patterns of performance. RACER inhibitory control accuracy score was significantly correlated with child age (r (929) = .09, p = .007). However, our findings did not support other hypotheses.ConclusionsThe high task completion rates and replication of expected patterns support that certain RACER sub‐tasks are feasible for measuring child cognitive development in LMIC settings. However, this study did not provide evidence to support that RACER is a valid tool to capture meaningful individual differences among children aged 4–6 years in Ghana.

A-291 Examining Executive Function Profiles with the NIH Toolbox in an ADHD Sample

Abstract Objective: Factor analysis of executive functions has identified three primary skills involving inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake & Friedman, 2012). Processing speed, while not typically thought of as an executive function, contributes to cognitive proficiency. The NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NTCB) endeavors to capture these dimensions through its incorporation of subtests purported to measure these skills. The current study examines latent profiles of executive functioning in an ADHD sample. Method: Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to identify clusters based on NTCB measures within a sample of 176 participants diagnosed with ADHD (65.3% male; Mage= 12.06). Analytics were performed using MPlus statistical software, with missing data being accounted for using full information likelihood estimation (FIML). Model selection was based on the number of fit indices and criteria (Nylund et al., 2013). Results: A three-profile model was deemed best fit based on the lowest BIC (6820.64) and a Vuong-Lo p-value of .004. Results also indicated adequate entropy (.78). Participants were subcategorized as 80 with reduced attention and inhibitory control scores (Flanker and Dimensional Card Sort), 60 with reduced working memory and processing speed scores (List Sorting and Pattern Comparison), and 36 with the highest working memory and processing speed. Conclusion: Subtyping ADHD with objective data may better capture symptom variability than the current classification system, thereby lending itself to more targeted treatment plans.

Inattention, Impulsivity, and Hyperactivity in Deaf Children Are Not Due to Deficits in Inhibitory Control, but May Reflect an Adaptive Strategy.

The present study had two main aims: (1) to determine whether deaf children show higher rates of key behaviors of ADHD (inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive behaviors) and of Conduct Disorder—CD—(disruptive, aggressive, or antisocial behaviors) than hearing children, also examining whether the frequency of these behaviors in deaf children varied based on cochlear implant (CI) use, type of school (regular vs. specific for deaf) and level of receptive vocabulary; and (2) to determine whether any behavioral differences between deaf and hearing children could be explained by deficits in inhibitory control. We measured behaviors associated with ADHD and CD in 34 deaf and hearing children aged 9–10 years old, using the revised Spanish version of the Conners scale. We then assessed inhibitory control ability using a computerized Stroop task and a short version of the Attention Network Test for children. To obtain a measure of the level of receptive vocabulary of the deaf children we used a Spanish version of the Carolina Picture Vocabulary Test for Deaf and hearing-impaired children. Deaf children showed significantly higher rates of behaviors associated with ADHD and CD, and over 85% of cases detected with high risk of ADHD-inattentive type in the entire present sample were deaf children. Further, in the group of deaf children a negative correlation was found between receptive vocabulary and frequency of disruptive, aggressive, or antisocial behaviors associated with CD. However, inhibitory control scores did not differ between deaf and hearing children. Our results suggested that the ADHD-related behaviors seen in deaf children were not associated with a deficit in inhibitory control, at least in the interference suppression subcomponent. An alternative explanation could be that these behaviors are reflecting an adaptive strategy that permits deaf children to access information from their environment which is not available to them via audition.

Executive function in children with sickle cell anemia on transfusion: NIH toolbox utility in the clinical context

Objective: The aim of this study was to establish the utility of the NIH Toolbox as a cognitive screener of executive functions in the clinical context. Additionally, we aimed to investigate whether age and time on transfusion were related to executive function performance. Method: Twenty-eight children and adolescents with sickle cell anemia (SCA) between 8 and 18 years (M = 13.28, SD = 3.05) on transfusion treatment were included. Participants completed five NIH Toolbox tasks (three executive function tasks and two non-executive function control tasks). Results: Mean scores on one of the three executive function measures (inhibitory control) fell below the average range (M = 81.36, SD = 14.01) with approximately 70% of children from both groups below the average range. Scores for processing speed (M = 86.82, SD = 22.01) and cognitive flexibility (M = 85.75, SD = 12.67) were low averages. As expected, scores on non-executive measures (language and memory) fell within the average range. No significant differences were observed between children with silent stroke and no stroke on executive function measures. Older age (p < .01) and length of time on transfusion (p < .05) predicted lower inhibitory control scores. Conclusions: Findings provide evidence for poor development of inhibitory control with age in this patient population. As the NIH Toolbox successfully highlighted expected deficits in this patient population, this study supports the use of this tool as a brief screening measure for children with SCD. The clinical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Safinamide improves executive functions in fluctuating Parkinson's disease patients: an exploratory study.

Safinamide is a monoamine-oxidase-B inhibitor with peculiar features. At the dose of 100mg/day, safinamide stimulates dopaminergic transmission and reduces glutamatergic transmission. Here, we investigated the effects of safinamide 100mg on executive functions at the end of levodopa dose in fluctuating Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Thirty-two fluctuating PD patients were submitted at baseline (V1) to the UPDRS-III, the Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) and the Stroop-Word-Color-Test (SWCT) at the end of levodopa dose. Safinamide was then added to the original therapy. After 12weeks of treatment, patients underwent the final visit (V2), including the UPDRS-III, the FAB and the SWCT with the same daily time schedule as V1. Treatment with safinamide was associated with significant increases of the total FAB score, SWCT-interference time score and UPDRS-III score. Within FAB subdomains, add-on with safinamide significantly increased motor programming and increased mental flexibility and inhibitory control scores. The results of this exploratory study show that add-on with safinamide improves executive functions at the end of levodopa dose in fluctuating PD patients. In particular, attention and inhibition of cognitive interference were significantly ameliorated by add-on with safinamide, suggesting increased modulatory performances of prefrontal cortical pathways. If confirmed by future research on larger cohorts and under controlled conditions, the present results may represent the basis for a novel indication for the use of safinamide in fluctuating PD patients.

Neighbourhood disadvantage and child behaviour in Montevideo, Uruguay: a mixed methods study

BackgroundThe neighbourhood context is important for child development, but little evidence exists on neighbourhood-based challenges and resources in South American cities. We used a mixed methods approach to quantify the effect of neighbourhood disadvantage on child behaviour and to empower parents to explain life in disadvantaged neighbourhoods in Montevideo, Uruguay. MethodsA study within the Salud Ambiental Montevideo (SAM) longitudinal cohort yielded a cross-sectional sample of 225 (63% of total) children aged 6–8 years with complete data. Teacher ratings of child behaviour were collected using the Connors' Teacher Rating Scale—Revised (CTRS-R) and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Five indicators of neighbourhood disadvantage were collected from Montevideo census data, and combined into to a single neighbourhood disadvantage factor. In the analyses of the relation between neighbourhood disadvantage and child behaviour scores we controlled for individual-level socioeconomic indicators, child IQ, and concentrations of lead in blood. In a nested study, we conducted semi-structured interviews with ten caregivers of SAM children in low-income neighbourhoods. Parents discussed what neighbourhood means to them and what they liked and disliked about their neighbourhood, perceptions of community services, and raising children in their neighbourhood. Parents were also asked to photograph their neighbourhoods and to discuss the meaning of at least four of their photographs during the interview. FindingsOne SD increase in neighbourhood disadvantage was related to a 1% increase in prevalence ratio on scores of oppositional behaviour (p=0·048) and a 4% increase in prevalence ratio on emotional control problem ratings (p=0·006). Neighbourhood disadvantage was unrelated to hyperactive behaviours and inhibitory control scores. From the interviews, common themes emerged on the importance of playgrounds, neighbourhood disorder, fears over crime, and lack of infrastructure. Many interviewees perceived that their neighbourhoods had been safer in the past. Suggestions for improving neighbourhoods included: better waste management, increased policing, traffic regulation, and improved local clinics. InterpretationNeighbourhood disadvantage is related to child behaviour beyond the influences of individual-level socioeconomic factors. Low-income neighbourhoods in Montevideo face challenges related to local infrastructure and services. Parents advocated for improved infrastructure, health services, transportation, and safety. Future studies should test specific mechanisms behind the effects of neighbourhood disadvantage and child behaviour in Montevideo. FundingUS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Fogarty International (FI) Institute under grant number R21ES16523, and by NIEHS grant R21ES019949.

Computer-Based Cognitive Training Improves Brain Functional Connectivity in the Attentional Networks: A Study With Primary School-Aged Children.

We have shown that a computer-based program that trains schoolchildren in cognitive tasks that mainly tap working memory (WM), implemented by teachers and integrated into school routine, improved cognitive and academic skills compared with an active control group. Concretely, improvements were observed in inhibition skills, non-verbal IQ, mathematics and reading skills. Here, we focus on a subsample from the overarching study who volunteered to be scanned using a resting state fMRI protocol before and 6-month after training. This sample reproduced the aforementioned behavioral effects, and brain functional connectivity changes were observed within the attentional networks (ATN), linked to improvements in inhibitory control. Findings showed stronger relationships between inhibitory control scores and functional connectivity in a right middle frontal gyrus (MFG) cluster in trained children compared to children from the control group. Seed-based analyses revealed that connectivity between the r-MFG and homolateral parietal and superior temporal areas were more strongly related to inhibitory control in trained children compared to the control group. These findings highlight the relevance of computer-based cognitive training, integrated in real-life school environments, in boosting cognitive/academic performance and brain functional connectivity.

Removing shared information improves 3- and 4-year-olds’ performance on a change-of-location explicit false belief task

The classic change-of-location explicit false belief task ends with a test question of the form “Where will the [agent] look for the [object]?” It has been proposed that by including mention of the target object, the question creates unwanted attention to the actual object location. A standard explanation is that children are biased to answer according to their own knowledge of reality. We proposed that mention of the target object brings attention to the reality location via memory-based processes that are biased to retrieve previous shared information. We manipulated whether the experimenter who asked the test question had witnessed the change of location with the children. For the experimental group (age range = 3.00–4.17 years, Mage = 3.61 years, SD = 0.36), a second experimenter took the place of the first after the object location was changed. Performance was compared with a control group (age range = 3.00–4.25 years, Mage = 3.66 years, SD = 0.34) in which one experimenter conducted the whole procedure. Participants also undertook the Bear/Dragon task, a test of conflict inhibitory control. In the control group, 6 of 19 children (32%) passed, similar to previous results. In the experimental group, 12 of 19 (63%) passed. The groups did not differ significantly on their inhibitory control scores, and a logistic regression analysis revealed that only condition significantly predicted performance. We conclude that a bias toward shared information is a relevant factor in understanding children’s difficulty with the standard test question used in the change-of-location explicit false belief task.

Association between physical fitness and cognitive performance in 19-24 year old males.

The present study aimed to explore the association between physical fitness (PF) and cognitive performance in a sample of 19-24 year old males. Two hundred and eleven young males (20.2±1.5 years) participated in the study. Cognitive functioning tasks including information processing speed and inhibitory control were measured in addition to PF and motor fitness components such as aerobic fitness, static strength, explosive strength, agility and speed. Regression analysis showed that after adjustment for potential confounders (e.g. age, socioeconomic status, adiposity and physical activity), aerobic fitness (represented by shorter time in the one-mile run) was positively associated with composite inhibitory control scores (standardized β=0.17; p=0.04) and negatively associated with ∆ Simon (standardized β= -0.21; p=0.04). Explosive strength was negatively associated with composite information processing scores (standardized β= -0.24; P=0.01), and composite inhibitory control scores (standardized β= -0.22; p=0.02). Speed of movement, agility and static strength were not associated with any of the cognitive tests. In conclusion, aerobic fitness and explosive strength but not speed, agility or static strength might be indicators of underlying cognitive functioning tasks in 19-24 year old males.

The effects of guilt on preschoolers’ cognitive flexibility and inhibition

The current study examined the effects of guilt on two aspects of children’s cognitive functioning: cognitive inhibition and flexibility. Three- to 5-year olds were induced into a guilt state or a neutral state and then completed the Shape School task and the Dimensional Change Card Sort. Results indicated that 3- to 4.5-year-olds in the guilt condition had worse inhibitory control scores than those in the neutral condition; however, the two groups’ flexibility scores did not differ significantly. Further, the effect of guilt on cognitive inhibition was only evident for the younger children; no significant effects emerged for 4.5- to 5.9-year-olds. We discuss the implications of the current findings for developmental models of emotion and cognition.

The Relationship between Sleep Complaints, Depression, and Executive Functions on Older Adults.

Aim: In this manuscript, we report data on the association between executive functions screened by Frontal Assessment Battery, Five Digit Test and Digit Span with self-reported depressive symptoms and sleep complaints in non-demented older adults.Methods: A total sample of 95 non-demented older adults performed Geriatric Depression Scale short version, Frontal Assessment Battery, Five Digit Test, Digit Span, and clinical interview. We split participants in groups stratified by age according to: young-old (60–69 years of age), old-old (70–79 years), and oldest-old (>80 years) and compared these three groups on the sociodemographic characteristics and executive functions performance. We carried out Poisson regression with robust error variance to verify sleep complaints and depression effects on executive functions performance. Gender, age, years of formal education, use of antidepressants and of benzodiazepines were considered as confounding variables, taking into account executive functions as dependent and sleep complaints and depression as independent variables.Results: Controlling the effect of age, gender, years of formal education, use of benzodiazepines and of antidepressants there was a significant influence of depression in motor programming, inhibitory control, and working memory. Individuals without depression show motor programming scores 68.4% higher, inhibitory control scores 3 times greater and working memory scores also 3 times greater than individuals without depression. There was a significant influence of sleep complaints in phonemic fluency, motor programming, inhibitory control, and working memory. Individuals without sleep complaints show phonemic fluency scores 2 times greater than, motor programming scores 85.9% higher, inhibitory control scores 3 times greater and working memory scores also 3 times greater than individuals without sleep complaints.Conclusions: Sleep complaints are associated with phonemic fluency, motor programming, inhibitory control, and working memory impairment. Depression symptoms presence are associated with motor programming and working memory performances. Depression and sleep complaints interaction would determine worse phonemic fluency, inhibitory control and working memory cognitive performance than these two conditions alone.

Early adversity, RSA, and inhibitory control: Evidence of children's neurobiological sensitivity to social context

This study examined parasympathetic physiology as a moderator of the effects of early adversity (i.e., child abuse and neglect) on children's inhibitory control. Children's respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was assessed during a resting baseline, two joint challenge tasks with mother, and an individual frustration task. RSA assessed during each of the joint parent-child challenge tasks moderated the effects of child maltreatment (CM) status on children's independently-assessed inhibitory control. No moderation effect was found for RSA assessed at baseline or in the child-alone challenge task. Among CM-exposed children, lower RSA levels during the joint task predicted the lowest inhibitory control, whereas higher joint task RSA was linked to higher inhibitory control scores that were indistinguishable from those of non-CM children. Results are discussed with regard to the importance of considering context specificity (i.e., individual and caregiver contexts) in how biomarkers inform our understanding of individual differences in vulnerability among at-risk children.

Conflict Inhibitory Control Facilitates Pretense Quality in Young Preschoolers

The present research explores the role of inhibitory control (IC) in young preschoolers’ pretense ability using an ego depletion paradigm. In Experiment 1 (N = 56), children's pretense ability was assessed either before or after participating in conflict IC or control tasks, and in Experiment 2 (N = 36), pretense ability was measured after children engaged in either conflict or delay IC tasks. In both experiments, pretense scores were significantly higher only after engaging in conflict IC tasks. Further, pretense scores were positively correlated with IC scores when conflict IC was not experienced first. This pattern of results suggests that IC may underlie pretense, and conflict IC can boost the quality of children's subsequent pretending.

Hot and Cool Forms of Inhibitory Control and Externalizing Behavior in Children of Mothers who Smoked during Pregnancy: An Exploratory Study

This study examined whether children exposed to prenatal smoking show deficits in “hot” and/or “cool” executive functioning (EF). Hot EF is involved in regulation of affect and motivation, whereas cool EF is involved in handling abstract, decontextualized problems. Forty 7 to 9-year-old children (15 exposed to prenatal smoking, 25 non-exposed) performed two computerized tasks. The Sustained Attention Dots (SA-Dots) Task (as a measure of “cool” inhibitory control) requires 400 non-dominant hand and 200 dominant hand responses. Inhibitory control of the prepotent response is required for dominant hand responses. The Delay Frustration Task (DeFT) (as a measure of “hot” inhibitory control) consists of 55 simple maths exercises. On a number of trials delays are introduced before the next question appears on the screen. The extent of response-button pressing during delays indicates frustration-induced inhibitory control. Prenatally exposed children showed poorer inhibitory control in the DeFT than non-exposed children. A dose–response relationship was also observed. In addition, prenatally exposed children had significantly higher (dose-dependent) conduct problem- and hyperactivity-inattention scores. There were no significant group differences in inhibitory control scores from the SA-Dots. These results indicate that children exposed to prenatal smoking are at higher risk of hot but not cool executive function deficits.