Inhibition Of Peptidoglycan Synthesis Research Articles

Nanostructure-Mediated Photothermal Effect for Reinforcing Physical Killing Activity of Nanorod Arrays.

The physical killing of bacteria based on surface topography has attracted much attention due to the sustainable and safe prevention of biofilm formation. However, the antibacterial efficiency of biomedical implants derived solely from nanostructures or microstructures is insufficient to combat bacteria against common infections, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with thick cell walls. Herein, photothermal therapy is carried out in the presence of nanorod arrays to mitigate infection of biomedical implants. Different from traditional photothermal therapy relying on a photosensitizer, the photothermal effect is mediated by light traps rendered by the nanorod arrays, and consequently, the photosensitizer is not needed. Finite element simulations and experiments are performed to elucidate the light-to-thermal conversion mechanism. This photothermal platform, in conjunction with thermosensitive nitric oxide therapy, is applied to treat titanium implant infection. The nanostructure-mediated photothermal effect destroys bacterial cell walls by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis and increasing the membrane permeability by affecting fatty acid synthesis. Furthermore, the nanorods synergistically puncture the bacterial membrane easily as demonstrated by experiments and transcriptome analysis. The results provide insights into the development of efficient antibacterial treatment of implants by combining nanostructures and photothermal therapy.

Cell constriction requires processive septal peptidoglycan synthase movement independent of FtsZ treadmilling in Staphylococcus aureus.

Bacterial cell division requires recruitment of peptidoglycan (PG) synthases to the division site by the tubulin homologue, FtsZ. Septal PG synthases promote septum growth. FtsZ treadmilling is proposed to drive the processive movement of septal PG synthases and septal constriction in some bacteria; however, the precise mechanisms spatio-temporally regulating PG synthase movement and activity and FtsZ treadmilling are poorly understood. Here using single-molecule imaging of division proteins in the Gram-positive pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, we showed that the septal PG synthase complex FtsW/PBP1 and its putative activator protein, DivIB, move with similar velocity around the division site. Impairing FtsZ treadmilling did not affect FtsW or DivIB velocities or septum constriction rates. Contrarily, PG synthesis inhibition decelerated or stopped directional movement of FtsW and DivIB, and septum constriction. Our findings suggest that a single population of processively moving FtsW/PBP1 associated with DivIB drives cell constriction independently of FtsZ treadmilling in S. aureus.

Ethambutol and meropenem/clavulanate synergy promotes enhanced extracellular and intracellular killing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Increasing evidence supports the repositioning of beta-lactams for tuberculosis (TB) therapy, but further research on their interaction with conventional anti-TB agents is still warranted. Moreover, the complex cell envelope of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) may pose an additional obstacle to beta-lactam diffusion. In this context, we aimed to identify synergies between beta-lactams and anti-TB drugs ethambutol (EMB) and isoniazid (INH) by assessing antimicrobial effects, intracellular activity, and immune responses. Checkerboard assays with H37Rv and eight clinical isolates, including four drug-resistant strains, exposed that only treatments containing EMB and beta-lactams achieved synergistic effects. Meanwhile, the standard EMB and INH association failed to produce any synergy. In Mtb-infected THP-1 macrophages, combinations of EMB with increasing meropenem (MEM) concentrations consistently displayed superior killing activities over the individual antibiotics. Flow cytometry with BODIPY FL vancomycin, which binds directly to the peptidoglycan (PG), confirmed an increased exposure of this layer after co-treatment. This was reinforced by the high IL-1β secretion levels found in infected macrophages after incubation with MEM concentrations above 5 mg/L, indicating an exposure of the host innate response sensors to pathogen-associated molecular patterns in the PG. Our findings show that the proposed impaired access of beta-lactams to periplasmic transpeptidases is counteracted by concomitant administration with EMB. The efficiency of this combination may be attributed to the synchronized inhibition of arabinogalactan and PG synthesis, two key cell wall components. Given that beta-lactams exhibit a time-dependent bactericidal activity, a more effective pathogen recognition and killing prompted by this association may be highly beneficial to optimize TB regimens containing carbapenems.IMPORTANCEAddressing drug-resistant tuberculosis with existing therapies is challenging and the treatment success rate is lower when compared to drug-susceptible infection. This study demonstrates that pairing beta-lactams with ethambutol (EMB) significantly improves their efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). The presence of EMB enhances beta-lactam access through the cell wall, which may translate into a prolonged contact between the drug and its targets at a concentration that effectively kills the pathogen. Importantly, we showed that the effects of the EMB and meropenem (MEM)/clavulanate combination were maintained intracellularly. These results are of high significance considering that the time above the minimum inhibitory concentration is the main determinant of beta-lactam efficacy. Moreover, a correlation was established between incubation with higher MEM concentrations during macrophage infection and increased IL-1β secretion. This finding unveils a previously overlooked aspect of carbapenem repurposing against tuberculosis, as certain Mtb strains suppress the secretion of this key pro-inflammatory cytokine to evade host surveillance.

The Bacillus subtilis cell envelope stress-inducible ytpAB operon modulates membrane properties and contributes to bacitracin resistance.

Antibiotics that inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis trigger the activation of both specific and general protective responses. σM responds to diverse antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis. Here, we demonstrate that cell wall-inhibiting drugs, such as bacitracin and cefuroxime, induce the σM-dependent ytpAB operon. YtpA is a predicted hydrolase previously proposed to generate the putative lysophospholipid antibiotic bacilysocin (lysophosphatidylglycerol), and YtpB is the branchpoint enzyme for the synthesis of membrane-localized C35 terpenoids. Using targeted lipidomics, we reveal that YtpA is not required for the production of lysophosphatidylglycerol. Nevertheless, ytpA was critical for growth in a mutant strain defective for homeoviscous adaptation due to a lack of genes for the synthesis of branched chain fatty acids and the Des phospholipid desaturase. Consistently, overexpression of ytpA increased membrane fluidity as monitored by fluorescence anisotropy. The ytpA gene contributes to bacitracin resistance in mutants additionally lacking the bceAB or bcrC genes, which directly mediate bacitracin resistance. These epistatic interactions support a model in which σM-dependent induction of the ytpAB operon helps cells tolerate bacitracin stress, either by facilitating the flipping of the undecaprenyl phosphate carrier lipid or by impacting the assembly or function of membrane-associated complexes involved in cell wall homeostasis.IMPORTANCEPeptidoglycan synthesis inhibitors include some of our most important antibiotics. In Bacillus subtilis, peptidoglycan synthesis inhibitors induce the σM regulon, which is critical for intrinsic antibiotic resistance. The σM-dependent ytpAB operon encodes a predicted hydrolase (YtpA) and the enzyme that initiates the synthesis of C35 terpenoids (YtpB). Our results suggest that YtpA is critical in cells defective in homeoviscous adaptation. Furthermore, we find that YtpA functions cooperatively with the BceAB and BcrC proteins in conferring intrinsic resistance to bacitracin, a peptide antibiotic that binds tightly to the undecaprenyl-pyrophosphate lipid carrier that sustains peptidoglycan synthesis.

8-octyl berberine combats Staphylococcus aureus by preventing peptidoglycan synthesis

Staphylococcus aureus is an important pathogenic bacterium responsible for various organ infections. The serious side effects and the development of antibiotic resistance have rendered the antibiotic therapy against S. aureus increasingly challenging, emphasizing the pressing need for the exploration of novel therapeutic agents. Our research has uncovered the promising antimicrobial properties of 8-octyl berberine (OBBR), a novel compound derived from berberine (BBR), against S. aureus. OBBR exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1.0 μg/mL, which closely approximated that of levofloxacin. Intriguingly, a multipassage resistance assay demonstrated that the MIC of OBBR against S. aureus remained relatively stable, while levofloxacin exhibited a 4-fold increase over 20 days, suggesting that OBBR was less prone to inducing resistance. Mechanistically, our investigation, employing Zeta potential measurements, flow cytometry, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy, unveiled that OBBR induced morphological alterations in the bacteria. Furthermore, it disrupted the bacterial cell wall and membrane by altering membrane potential and compromising membrane integrity. These actions culminated in bacterial disintegration and apoptosis. Transcriptomic analysis shed light on significant downregulation of gene ontology terms, predominantly associated with membranes. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis implicated OBBR in disturbing peptidoglycan biosynthesis, with the membrane protein MraY emerging as a potential target for OBBR's action against S. aureus. Notably, experiments involving the overexpression of MraY confirmed OBBR's inhibitory effect on peptidoglycan synthesis. Furthermore, molecular docking and cellular thermal shift assay revealed OBBR's direct interaction with MraY, potentially leading to the inhibition of the enzymatic activity of MraY and, consequently, impeding peptidoglycan synthesis. In summary, OBBR, by targeting MraY and inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis, emerges as a promising alternative antibiotic against S. aureus, offering potential advantages in terms of limited drug resistance development.

Conjugation of Vancomycin with a Single Arginine Improves Efficacy against Mycobacteria by More Effective Peptidoglycan Targeting.

Drug resistant bacterial infections have emerged as one of the greatest threats to public health. The discovery and development of new antimicrobials and anti-infective strategies are urgently needed to address this challenge. Vancomycin is one of the most important antibiotics for the treatment of Gram-positive infections. Here, we introduce the vancomycin-arginine conjugate (V-R) as a highly effective antimicrobial against actively growing mycobacteria and difficult-to-treat mycobacterial biofilm populations. Further improvement in efficacy through combination treatment of V-R to inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis and ethambutol to inhibit arabinogalactan synthesis underscores the ability to identify compound synergies to more effectively target the Achilles heel of the cell-wall assembly. Moreover, we introduce mechanistic activity data and a molecular model derived from a d-Ala-d-Ala-bound vancomycin structure that we hypothesize underlies the molecular basis for the antibacterial improvement attributed to the arginine modification that is specific to peptidoglycan chemistry employed by mycobacteria and distinct from Gram-positive pathogens.

Molecular characterization of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine milk.

Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) is a zoonotic life-threatening pathogen. Vancomycin exhibits anti-bacterial activity by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis by binding to the D-ala-D-ala terminus of the peptidoglycan. But in VRSA, D-ala-D-ala is replaced by D-ala-D-lactate due to the presence of vanA, vanB or vanD genes. This study was intended to identify the molecular prevalence of VRSA in 768 bovine milk samples, risk factor association, antibiogram profile and bioinformatics analysis of VRSA by targeting vanB gene. Out of a total of 248 S. aureus isolates from mastitic milk samples, the phenotypic and genotypic prevalence of VRSA was estimated to be 17.74% and 10.89%, respectively. Farm-level risk factors including use of improper milking technique, lack of milker's care during milking, unhygienic conditions during milking and no dry cow therapy were found to be significantly associated (p < 0.05). Anti-microbial susceptibility testing of VRSA isolates exhibited the highest resistance to oxytetracycline, followed by oxacillin and Trimethoprim+sulfamethoxazole. The current study sequences showed more resemblance with reported sequences from Iraq (MN747834) and Egypt (MK095504, MK087830), which belong to vanB gene from S. aureus as compared to sequences from other countries, which belong to vanB gene from the genus Enterococcus. The Genetic Algorithm for Recombination Detection (GARD) found 234 potential breakpoints, translating into a search room of 123,883,305 models with up to 4 breakpoints. The phylogenetic motif profiling method discovered evolutionarily conserved residues across target genes' homologous protein sequences. These residues were discovered to be conserved in drug-resistant target proteins over the evolutionary process and may play a key role in their function. The current study revealed a molecular prevalence of VRSA in dairy animals, along with molecular analysis of vancomycin resistance in S. aureus by targeting the vanB gene using standard bioinformatics tools. The occurrence of VRSA in animals requires serious attention because this pathogen has zoonotic potential, so it can become a greater risk to consumer health.

Collateral Changes in Cell Physiology Associated with ADC-7 β-Lactamase Expression in Acinetobacter baumannii.

The ADC (AmpC) β-lactamase is universally present in the Acinetobacter baumannii chromosome, suggesting it may have a yet-to-be-identified cellular function. Using peptidoglycan composition analysis, we show that overexpressing the ADC-7 β-lactamase in A. baumannii drives changes consistent with altered l,d-transpeptidase activity. Based on this, we tested whether cells overexpressing ADC-7 would exhibit new vulnerabilities. As proof of principle, a screen of transposon insertions revealed that an insertion in the distal 3' end of canB, encoding carbonic anhydrase, resulted in a significant loss of viability when the adc-7 gene was overexpressed. A canB deletion mutant exhibited a more pronounced loss of viability than the transposon insertion, and this became amplified when cells overexpressed ADC-7. Interestingly, overexpression of the OXA-23 or TEM-1 β-lactamases also led to a pronounced loss of viability in cells with reduced carbonic anhydrase activity. In addition, we demonstrate that reduced CanB activity led to increased sensitivity to peptidoglycan synthesis inhibitors and to the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor ethoxzolamide. Furthermore, this strain exhibited a synergistic interaction with the peptidoglycan inhibitor fosfomycin and ethoxzolamide. Our results highlight the impact of ADC-7 overexpression on cell physiology and reveal that the essential carbonic anhydrase CanB may represent a novel target for antimicrobial agents that would exhibit increased potency against β-lactamase-overexpressing A. baumannii. IMPORTANCE Acinetobacter baumannii has become resistant to all classes of antibiotics, with β-lactam resistance responsible for the majority of treatment failures. New classes of antimicrobials are needed to treat this high-priority pathogen. This study had uncovered a new genetic vulnerability in β-lactamase-expressing A. baumannii, where reduced carbonic anhydrase activity becomes lethal. Inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase could represent a new method for treating A. baumannii infections.

Inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis is sufficient for total arrest of staphylococcal cell division

Bacterial cell wall biosynthesis is the target of many important antibiotics. Its spatiotemporal organization is closely coordinated with cell division. However, the role of peptidoglycan synthesis within cell division is not fully understood. Even less is known about the impact of antibiotics on the coordination of these two essential processes. Visualizing the essential cell division protein FtsZ and other key proteins in Staphylococcus aureus, we show that antibiotics targeting peptidoglycan synthesis arrest cell division within minutes of treatment. The glycopeptides vancomycin and telavancin completely inhibit septum constriction in all phases of cell division. The beta-lactam oxacillin stops division progress by preventing recruitment of the major peptidoglycan synthase PBP2 to the septum, revealing PBP2 as crucial for septum closure. Our work identifies cell division as key cellular target of these antibiotics and provides evidence that peptidoglycan synthesis is the essential driving force of septum constriction throughout cell division of S. aureus.

Identification of drivers of mycobacterial resistance to peptidoglycan synthesis inhibitors.

Beta-lactams have been excluded from tuberculosis therapy due to the intrinsic resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) to this antibiotic class, usually attributed to a potent beta-lactamase, BlaC, and to an unusually complex cell wall. In this pathogen, the peptidoglycan is cross-linked by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and L,D-transpeptidases, the latter resistant to inhibition by most beta-lactams. However, recent studies have shown encouraging results of beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations in clinical strains. Additional research on the mechanisms of action and resistance to these antibiotics and other inhibitors of peptidoglycan synthesis, such as the glycopeptides, is crucial to ascertain their place in alternative regimens against drug-resistant strains. Within this scope, we applied selective pressure to generate mutants resistant to amoxicillin, meropenem or vancomycin in Mtb H37Rv or Mycolicibacterium smegmatis (Msm) mc2-155. These were phenotypically characterized, and whole-genome sequencing was performed. Mutations in promising targets or orthologue genes were inspected in Mtb clinical strains to establish potential associations between altered susceptibility to beta-lactams and the presence of key genomic signatures. The obtained isolates had substantial increases in the minimum inhibitory concentration of the selection antibiotic, and beta-lactam cross-resistance was detected in Mtb. Mutations in L,D-transpeptidases and major PBPs, canonical targets, or BlaC were not found. The transcriptional regulator PhoP (Rv0757) emerged as a common denominator for Mtb resistance to both amoxicillin and meropenem, while Rv2864c, a lipoprotein with PBP activity, appears to be specifically involved in decreased susceptibility to the carbapenem. Nonetheless, the mutational pattern detected in meropenem-resistant mutants was different from the yielded by amoxicillin-or vancomycin-selected isolates, suggesting that distinct pathways may participate in increased resistance to peptidoglycan inhibitors, including at the level of beta-lactam subclasses. Cross-resistance between beta-lactams and antimycobacterials was mostly unnoticed, and Msm meropenem-resistant mutants from parental strains with previous resistance to isoniazid or ethambutol were isolated at a lower frequency. Although cell-associated nitrocefin hydrolysis was increased in some of the isolates, our findings suggest that traditional assumptions of Mtb resistance relying largely in beta-lactamase activity and impaired access of hydrophilic molecules through lipid-rich outer layers should be challenged. Moreover, the therapeutical potential of the identified Mtb targets should be explored.

Cloning and Characterization of a Thermostable Endolysin of Bacteriophage TP-84 as a Potential Disinfectant and Biofilm-Removing Biological Agent.

The obligatory step in the life cycle of a lytic bacteriophage is the release of its progeny particles from infected bacterial cells. The main barrier to overcome is the cell wall, composed of crosslinked peptidoglycan, which counteracts the pressure prevailing in the cytoplasm and protects the cell against osmotic lysis and mechanical damage. Bacteriophages have developed two strategies leading to the release of progeny particles: the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis and enzymatic cleavage by a bacteriophage-coded endolysin. In this study, we cloned and investigated the TP84_28 endolysin of the bacteriophage TP-84, which infects thermophilic Geobacillus stearothermophilus, determined the enzymatic characteristics, and initially evaluated the endolysin application as a non-invasive agent for disinfecting surfaces, including those exposed to high temperatures. Both the native and recombinant TP84_28 endolysins, obtained through the Escherichia coli T7-lac expression system, are highly thermostable and retain trace activity after incubation at 100 °C for 30 min. The proteins exhibit strong bacterial wall digestion activity up to 77.6 °C, decreasing to marginal activity at ambient temperatures. We assayed the lysis of various types of bacteria using TP84_28 endolysins: Gram-positive, Gram-negative, encapsulated, and pathogenic. Significant lytic activity was observed on the thermophilic and mesophilic Gram-positive bacteria and, to a lesser extent, on the thermophilic and mesophilic Gram-negative bacteria. The thermostable TP84_28 endolysin seems to be a promising mild agent for disinfecting surfaces exposed to high temperatures.

Characterization of Secondary Structure and Thermal Stability by Biophysical Methods of the D-alanyl,D-alanine Ligase B Protein from Escherichia coli.

Peptidoglycan (PG) is a key structural component of the bacterial cell wall and interruption of its biosynthesis is a validated target for antimicrobials. Of the enzymes involved in PG biosynthesis, D-alanyl,D-alanine ligase B (DdlB) is responsible for the condensation of two alanines, forming D-Ala-D-Ala, which is required for subsequent extracellular transpeptidase crosslinking of the mature peptidoglycan polymer. We aimed at the biophysical characterization of recombinant Escherichia coli DdlB (EcDdlB), considering parameters of melting temperature (Tm), calorimetry and Van't Hoff enthalpy changes of denaturation ( ΔHUcal and ΔHUvH ), as well as characterization of elements of secondary structure at three different pHs. DdlB was overexpressed in E. coli BL21 and purified by affinity chromatography. Thermal stability and structural characteristics of the purified enzyme were analyzed by circular dichroism (CD), differential scanning calorimetry and fluorescence spectroscopy. The stability of EcDdlB increased with proximity to its pI of 5.0, reaching the maximum at pH 5.4 with Tm and ΔHUvH U of 52.68 ºC and 484 kJ.mol-1, respectively. Deconvolutions of the CD spectra at 20 ºC showed a majority percentage of α-helix at pH 5.4 and 9.4, whereas for pH 7.4, an equal contribution of β-structures and α-helices was calculated. Thermal denaturation process of EcDdlB proved to be irreversible with an increase in β-structures that can contribute to the formation of protein aggregates. Such results will be useful for energy minimization of structural models aimed at virtual screening simulations, providing useful information in the search for drugs that inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis.

Synergetic Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanism of Clotrimazole-Linked CO-Releasing Molecules.

Several metal-based carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs) are active CO donors with established antibacterial activity. Among them, CORM conjugates with azole antibiotics of type [Mn(CO)3(2,2′-bipyridyl)(azole)]+ display important synergies against several microbes. We carried out a structure–activity relationship study based upon the lead structure of [Mn(CO)3(Bpy)(Ctz)]+ by producing clotrimazole (Ctz) conjugates with varying metal and ligands. We concluded that the nature of the bidentate ligand strongly influences the bactericidal activity, with the substitution of bipyridyl by small bicyclic ligands leading to highly active clotrimazole conjugates. On the contrary, the metal did not influence the activity. We found that conjugate [Re(CO)3(Bpy)(Ctz)]+ is more than the sum of its parts: while precursor [Re(CO)3(Bpy)Br] has no antibacterial activity and clotrimazole shows only moderate minimal inhibitory concentrations, the potency of [Re(CO)3(Bpy)(Ctz)]+ is one order of magnitude higher than that of clotrimazole, and the spectrum of bacterial target species includes Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The addition of [Re(CO)3(Bpy)(Ctz)]+ to Staphylococcus aureus causes a general impact on the membrane topology, has inhibitory effects on peptidoglycan biosynthesis, and affects energy functions. The mechanism of action of this kind of CORM conjugates involves a sequence of events initiated by membrane insertion, followed by membrane disorganization, inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis, CO release, and break down of the membrane potential. These results suggest that conjugation of CORMs to known antibiotics may produce useful structures with synergistic effects that increase the conjugate’s activity relative to that of the antibiotic alone.

Structural and functional insights into colicin: a new paradigm in drug discovery.

Colicins are agents of allelopathic interactions produced by certain enterobacteria which give them a competitive advantage in the environment. These protein molecules are mostly encoded by plasmids. The colicin operon consists of the activity, immunity and the lysis genes. The activity protein is responsible for the killing activity, the immunity protein protects the producer cell from the lethal action of colicin and the lysis protein facilitates its release. Colicins are primarily composed of three domains, namely the receptor-binding domain, the translocation domain and the cytotoxic domain. The protein molecule binds to its cognate receptor on the target cell via the receptor-binding domain and undergoes translocation into the cell either via the Tol system or the Ton system. After gaining entry into the target cell, there are various mechanisms by which colicins exert their lethality. These comprise DNase activity, RNase activity and pore formation in the target cell membrane or peptidoglycan synthesis inhibition. This review gives a detailed insight into the structural and functional aspect of colicins and their mode of action. This knowledge is of immense significance because colicins are being considered as very useful alternatives to conventional antibiotics in the treatment of multidrug-resistant infections. Besides, they also have a negligible harmful impact on the commensals. Thus, before tapping their therapeutic potential, it is imperative to know their structure and mechanism of action in detail.

OXA-23 β-Lactamase Overexpression in Acinetobacter baumannii Drives Physiological Changes Resulting in New Genetic Vulnerabilities.

ABSTRACTβ-Lactamase expression is the major mechanism of resistance to penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems in the multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii. In fact, stable high-level expression of at least one β-lactamase has been rapidly increasing and reported to occur in up to 98.5% of modern A. baumannii isolates recovered in the clinic. Moreover, the OXA-51 β-lactamase is universally present in the A. baumannii chromosome, suggesting it may have a cellular function beyond antibiotic resistance. However, the consequences associated with OXA β-lactamase overexpression on A. baumannii physiology are not well understood. Using peptidoglycan composition analysis, we show that overexpressing the OXA-23 β-lactamase in A. baumannii drives significant collateral changes with alterations consistent with increased amidase activity. Consequently, we predicted that these changes create new cellular vulnerabilities. As proof of principle, a small screen of random transposon insertions revealed three genes, where mutations resulted in a greater than 19-fold loss of viability when OXA-23 was overexpressed. The identified genes remained conditionally essential even when a catalytically inactive OXA-23 β-lactamase was overexpressed. In addition, we demonstrated a synergistic lethal relationship between OXA-23 overexpression and a CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) knockdown of the essential peptidoglycan synthesis enzyme MurA. Last, OXA-23 overexpression sensitized cells to two inhibitors of peptidoglycan synthesis, d-cycloserine and fosfomycin. Our results highlight the impact of OXA-23 hyperexpression on peptidoglycan integrity and reveal new genetic vulnerabilities, which may represent novel targets for antimicrobial agents specific to MDR A. baumannii and other OXA β-lactamase-overexpressing Enterobacteriaceae, while having no impact on the normal flora.

Incorporation of Plasmid DNA Into Bacterial Membrane Vesicles by Peptidoglycan Defects in Escherichia coli.

Membrane vesicles (MVs) are released by various prokaryotes and play a role in the delivery of various cell-cell interaction factors. Recent studies have determined that these vesicles are capable of functioning as mediators of horizontal gene transfer. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are a type of MV that is released by Gram-negative bacteria and primarily composed of outer membrane and periplasm components; however, it remains largely unknown why DNA is contained within OMVs. Our study aimed to understand the mechanism by which DNA that is localized in the cytoplasm is incorporated into OMVs in Gram-negative bacteria. We compared DNA associated with OMVs using Escherichia coli BW25113 cells harboring the non-conjugative, non-mobilized, and high-copy plasmid pUC19 and its hypervesiculating mutants that included ΔnlpI, ΔrseA, and ΔtolA. Plasmid copy per vesicle was increased in OMVs derived from ΔnlpI, in which peptidoglycan (PG) breakdown and synthesis are altered. When supplemented with 1% glycine to inhibit PG synthesis, both OMV formation and plasmid copy per vesicle were increased in the wild type. The bacterial membrane condition test indicated that membrane permeability was increased in the presence of glycine at the late exponential phase, in which cell lysis did not occur. Additionally, quick-freeze deep-etch and replica electron microscopy observations revealed that outer-inner membrane vesicles (O-IMVs) are formed in the presence of glycine. Thus, two proposed routes for DNA incorporation into OMVs under PG-damaged conditions are suggested. These routes include DNA leakage due to increased membrane permeation and O-IMV formation. Additionally, our findings contribute to a greater understanding of the vesicle-mediated horizontal gene transfer that occurs in nature and the utilization of MVs for DNA cargo.

Coordination mechanism of cell and cyanelle division in the glaucophyte alga Cyanophora sudae

In unicellular algae with a single chloroplast, two mechanisms coordinate cell and chloroplast division: the S phase-specific expression of chloroplast division genes and the permission of cell cycle progression from prophase to metaphase by the onset of chloroplast division. This study investigated whether a similar mechanism exists in a unicellular alga with multiple chloroplasts using the glaucophyte alga Cyanophora sudae, which contains four chloroplasts (cyanelles). Cells with eight cyanelles appeared after the S phase arrest with a topoisomerase inhibitor camptothecin, suggesting that the mechanism of S phase-specific expression of cyanelle division genes was conserved in this alga. Inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis by β-lactam antibiotic ampicillin arrested cells in the S-G2 phase, and inhibition of septum invagination with cephalexin resulted in cells with two nuclei and one cyanelle, despite inhibition of cyanelle division. This indicates that even in the unicellular alga with four chloroplasts, the cell cycle progresses to the M phase following the progression of chloroplast division to a certain division stage. These results suggested that C. sudae has two mechanisms for coordinating cell and cyanelle division, similar to the unicellular algae with a single chloroplast.

Burkholderia pseudomallei Clinical Isolates Are Highly Susceptible In Vitro to Cefiderocol, a Siderophore Cephalosporin.

Cefiderocol is a cephalosporin designed to treat multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. By forming a chelated complex with ferric iron, cefiderocol is transported into the periplasmic space via bacterial iron transport systems and primarily binds to penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3) to inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis. This mode of action results in cefiderocol having greater in vitro activity against many Gram-negative bacilli than currently used carbapenems, β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations, and cephalosporins. Thus, we investigated the in vitro activity of cefiderocol against a total of 246 clinical isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei from Queensland, Australia. The collection was composed primarily of bloodstream (56.1%), skin and soft tissue (16.3%), and respiratory (15.9%) isolates. MICs of cefiderocol ranged from ≤0.03 to 16 mg/liter, whereas the MIC90 was 0.125 mg/liter. Based upon CLSI clinical breakpoints for cefiderocol against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, three isolates (1.2%) would be classified as nonsusceptible (MIC > 4 mg/liter). Using EUCAST non-species-specific (pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic [PK/PD]) clinical breakpoints or those set for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, four isolates (1.6%) would be resistant (MIC > 2 mg/liter). Further testing for coresistance to meropenem, ceftazidime, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin-clavulanate, and doxycycline was performed on the four isolates with elevated cefiderocol MICs (>2 mg/liter); all isolates exhibited resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, while three isolates also displayed resistance to at least one other antimicrobial. Cefiderocol was found to be highly active in vitro against B. pseudomallei primary clinical isolates. This compound shows great potential for the treatment of melioidosis in countries of endemicity and should be explored further.

Cefiderocol Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Considerations: the Achilles' Heel of the Trojan Horse?

Cefiderocol (formerly S-649266) is a novel siderophore-conjugated cephalosporin with activity against a broad array of multidrug-resistant (MDR), aerobic Gram-negative bacilli. The siderophore component binds iron and uses active iron transport for drug entry into the bacterial periplasmic space. The cephalosporin moiety is the active antimicrobial component, structurally resembling a hybrid between ceftazidime and cefepime. Like other β-lactam agents, the principal bactericidal activity of cefiderocol occurs via inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding of penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis, leading to cell death. Iron concentrations need to be taken into consideration when in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility to cefiderocol is determined. Broth microdilution (BMD) and disk diffusion methods have been developed to determine in vitro activity of cefiderocol. For BMD, cation-adjusted Mueller-Hinton broth (CAMHB) requires iron depletion to provide MICs predictive of in vivo activity. A method to prepare iron-depleted CAMHB (ID-CAMHB) has been described by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). For disk diffusion, standard Mueller-Hinton agar is recommended, presumably because iron is bound in the medium. Currently, clinical FDA and European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) breakpoints and investigational (research-use-only) CLSI breakpoints exist for interpreting cefiderocol susceptibility results for certain Gram-negative bacilli. Cefiderocol does not have clinically relevant activity against Gram-positive or anaerobic organisms. FDA or EUCAST breakpoints should be applied to interpret results for Enterobacterales, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii complex for patient care until the investigational status has been removed from CLSI breakpoints. Further clinical outcome data are required to assess the effectiveness of cefiderocol for treatment of other Acinetobacter species (non-baumannii complex) and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia at this time, and, as such, antimicrobial susceptibility testing of these organisms should be limited to research use in the scenario of limited treatment options.

Synergistic interactions of ionic liquids and antimicrobials improve drug efficacy.

SummaryCombinations of ionic liquids (ILs) with antimicrobial compounds have been shown to produce synergistic activities in model liposomes. In this study, imidazolium chloride-based ILs with alkyl tail length variations are combined with commercially available, small-molecule antimicrobials to examine the potential for combinatorial and synergistic antimicrobial effects on P. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. aureus, and S. cerevisiae. The effects of these treatments in a human cell culture model indicate the cytotoxic limits of ILs paired with antimicrobials. The analysis of these ILs demonstrates that the length of the alkyl chain on the IL molecule is proportional to both antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity. Moreover, the ILs which exhibit synergy with small-molecule antibiotics appear to be acting in a membrane permeabilizing manner. Collectively, results from these experiments demonstrate an increase in antimicrobial efficacy with specific IL + antimicrobial combinations on microbial cultures while maintaining low cytotoxicity in a mammalian cell culture model.