Informal Water Research Articles

Adaptive governance and evolution of a groundwater-based resilient city: a case study of Kure City, Japan

ABSTRACT Discussion on adaptive governance is criticized for being overly conceptual and limited in application beyond environmental issues. To fill this gap, this paper examines how adaptive governance functions in specific contexts, such as addressing post-disaster water supply cut-offs. In Kure City, Japan, different levels of government and NGOs helped local well owners emerge as informal water suppliers after the 2018 flood. This research identifies four elements of adaptive governance (polycentricity, participation, self-organization, social learning) underpinning this initiative. Furthermore, it reveals the importance of financial incentives for well owners and pre-registration of local wells as policy lessons for emergent groundwater utilization.

Public policies on human rights to water in informal settlements: a bibliometric analysis

ABSTRACT Global attention and academic research have focused on the intersection of informal settlements, water rights, and public policy implementation. However, the overlap of these topics remains underexplored, and trends are largely unknown. This study aims to identify aspects related to public policies on human rights to water in informal urban settlements (IUS) and their association with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). A bibliometric analysis of 1,702 publications from 1978 to June 2023 was conducted using R Studio and Biblioshiny. Descriptive analysis, clustering, and mapping were employed to identify key measures for effective public policies. These include infrastructure investment, fair water pricing regulation, and socioeconomic inclusion. Furthermore, it was found that public policies should be adaptive and inclusive, with a focus on gender-sensitive approaches to address unique challenges faced by women. It is recommended that these policies prioritize environmental sustainability and innovative technologies, to support the SDGs 6, 10, 11, and 13. This will enhance resilience and well-being in IUS communities.

How informal water supply points using private wells worked in an emergency: A quantitative evaluation

ABSTRACT The effectiveness of an emergency water supply using private wells has been asserted theoretically but not evaluated in detail. This paper aims to consider the effectiveness and shortcomings of emergency water supply based on local wells and to support policy formulation regarding groundwater usage in the event of a disaster. In Kamisu City, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan, not only public-operated formal water supply points using water trucks but also informal water supply points using private wells were open to address water outages following the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. This study clarified the pattern of appearance and spatial distribution of those points by combining information from local newspapers, Internet archives, and an original questionnaire survey. In addition, the function of informal water supply points was quantitatively evaluated using GIS by comparing cases with and without informal water supply points. Analysis revealed that informal water supply points expanded the size of the serviced population within a 500-m radius of the water supply points by 47%, compared with cases when only formal water supply points were available. However, well water was not necessarily suitable for drinking owing to quality issues. As a policy lesson, the importance of sharing well information is indicated.

Water Supply Systems in Urban Slum Communities in Lagos, Nigeria: Between Self-supply and Co-production

By investigating the contribution of the ‘informal sector’, this article explores the resourcefulness of place-based practices and how they shape the urban water provision in Lagos. It also provides a detailed and critical view of the enormous efforts of inhabitants in urban slums in the daily water provision. Analysing the qualitative field data collected from observations, 89 semi-structured interviews (field notes), 6 focus group discussions and 12 expert interviews, water supply systems, the utilisation in slum communities and power and politics around it are exposed. Even if people can afford to pay the bills, the provision of urban services by state actors (or commissioned firms) is erratic and often not available. The daily infrastructure provision remains the responsibility of individuals and groups, mostly organised in complex yet fragile and changing networks. Drawing from the research on the existing, largely informal water supply in slum communities, this article argues for the recognition and pro-active implementation of hybrid approaches in the planning, implementation and administration of urban infrastructure. It calls for co-production and ‘hybrid water governance’.

“Quenching the thirst of others while suffering”: Embodied experiences of water vendors in Ghana and Kenya

Informal water sellers (commonly known as water vendors) have emerged as part of urban water infrastructure systems in many low- and middle-income countries to meet the water needs of unserved urban populations. These vendors include water tanker operators, those who sell water from private standpipes and boreholes, and those who use hand carts, bicycles, tricycles to transport water around for sale. However, we know little about the embodied impacts of their work on their health and wellbeing. In this article, we consider how embodied experience can add to our understandings of water access and decent work in urban centers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study examines health risks associated with informal water vending in three cities, Accra and Wa (Ghana) and Kisumu (Kenya), where close to 48%, 65%, and 26% of residents respectively rely on vendors for their drinking water needs. We used in-depth interviews to explore the lived experiences of 59 water vendors and perspectives of 21 local stakeholders. Water vendors were mostly exposed to injury, environmental pollution, stigma, and work-life balance. Vendors who transport water in containers using bicycles or hand-pushed carts and those who carry water around complained about harsh weather conditions, poor physical terrain, and abuse from customers. Female water vendors also complained about pregnancy complications, baldness and water related diseases. Female water vendors experience unique physical threats that may put them at greater risk for chronic health and safety impacts. Gaining a better understanding of the health risks faced by these water vendors will provide policy makers with greater insight into how water vendors can be better supported to provide more improved services to enhance greater access to safe water. Findings from this work are also important for contributing to social protection policies, promoting inclusive growth, and designing empowerment programs for women.

Broad Brush Surveys: a rapid qualitative assessment approach for water and sanitation infrastructure in urban sub-Saharan cities

IntroductionBroad Brush Surveys (BBS) are a rapid, qualitative assessment approach using four meta-indicators -physical features, social organization, social networks and community narratives - to gauge how local context interfaces with service/intervention options, implementation and uptake.MethodsIn 2021, responding to rapid urbanization and the accompanying need for water and sanitation services, BBS was innovatively applied by social scientists and engineers to assess water and sanitation infrastructure, both formal and informal, in two African cities - Lusaka and Cape Town. In four urban communities, identified with local stakeholders, BBS data collection included: four mapping group discussions with local stakeholders (participants = 24); eight transect walks/drives; 60 structured observations of water and sanitation options, transport depots, health facilities, weekends, nights, rainy days; seven mixed gender focus group discussions (FGDs) with older and young residents (participants = 86); 21 key-informant interviews (KII, participants = 21).ResultsFindings were rapidly summarized into community profiles, including narrative reports, maps and posters, and first discussed with community stakeholders, then at national/provincial levels. The meta-indicator framework and set sequence of qualitative activities allowed the detail on water and sanitation to gradually emerge. For example, the mapping discussion identified water sources considered a risk for waterborne infections, further observed in the transect walks and then structured observations, which compared their relative condition and social interactions and what local residents narrated about them. FGDs and KIIs elaborated on the control of these sources, with nuanced detail, including hidden sources and the use of different water sources for different activities also emerging.DiscussionWe demonstrated that despite some limitations, BBS provided useful insight to systems and social processes surrounding formal and informal water and sanitation infrastructure in and across designated urban areas. Furthermore, BBS had the potential to galvanize local action to improve infrastructure, and illuminated the value of informal options in service delivery.

Analysis of social network effects on water trade in an informal water market

This paper proposes a novel agent-based model (ABM) to assess actual informal water market (IWM) trade—a highly common form of reallocating water globally, but where analysis is challenging due to data paucity. Because, typically, there is not an integrated or centralized institution coordinating transactions in IWMs, social networks and communications between farmers play a key role. This makes applications of ABMs in the informal space appealing and useful. Survey and interview data are used for the model development via a sample of farmers in Mojen Area, Iran. Also, in the final model, some critical human behaviors (e.g. adaptability and self-interest) are described in the form of parameters and formulas, with optimum values calibrated based on the Mojen sample as well as making possible a detailed assessment of the effects on water transaction and farmers’ profit margins. The result of the simulation reveals that IWM trade frees up water for use by other farmers in the Mojen area, especially when stronger social networks are in place where the average number of water transactions will be increased—about 50%. The presence of IWMs also contributes to a more stable cultivation area in dry years, where water trading helps protect perennial crops that have become an increased production system choice in recent years. Further, informal water markets help farmers to optimally use water supply in order to deal with lower rainfall years and fulfil water needs during higher rainfall years due to increasing cultivation areas.

Informal Water Tankers, Their Network Structure, and Drivers of Cooperation and Competition: A Case Study in Beirut, Lebanon

Areas with chronic water shortages rely on informal water tankers for daily water needs. Informal tankers operate outside the reach of the state, hence the quality and price of the services they provide and the pressure their activities inflict on water systems go largely unchecked. Informal tankers use their social relationships to manage water sources and operate like an informal network. Yet, little is known about the drivers that explain their relationships and their impact on the overall water system. We investigate these issues in the empirical case of Beirut (Lebanon) using 20 semi-structured interviews and social network analysis. We find that: cooperative and competitive relationships between tankers give rise to different network structures; the drivers of cooperation and competition are religion and seniority in the market; climate change affects informal water markets by increasing competition for wells and clients. We propose recommendations for practitioners and policy-makers, and future research.

MAD Water: Integrating Modular, Adaptive, and Decentralized Approaches for Water Security in the Climate Change Era.

Centralized water infrastructure has, over the last century, brought safe and reliable drinking water to much of the world. But climate change, combined with aging and underfunding, is increasingly testing the limits of-and reversing gains made by-these large-scale water systems. To address these growing strains and gaps, we must assess and advance alternatives to centralized water provision and sanitation. The water literature is rife with examples of systems that are neither centralized nor networked, but still meet water needs of local communities in important ways, including: informal and hybrid water systems, decentralized water provision, community-based water management, small drinking water systems, point-of-use treatment, small-scale water vendors, and packaged water. Our work builds on these literatures by proposing a convergence approach that can integrate and explore the benefits and challenges of modular, adaptive, and decentralized ("MAD") water provision and sanitation, often foregrounding important advances in engineering technology. We further provide frameworks to evaluate justice, economic feasibility, governance, human health, and environmental sustainability as key parameters of MAD water system performance.

The Context Relevance of ICT, Freshwater Management Activity and Sustainability Goal: A Proposed Encapsulated Conceptual Framework

This study proposes an Encapsulated Conceptual Framework (ECF) for understanding the links between Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), water resource management activities, and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study aims to contribute to national, regional, and global debates on the potential of ICTs in achieving sustainability goals. A combination of two socio-technical theories - Relevance Theory (RT) and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was adopted to inform the study. The literature review further informed the construction of the ECF. The framework testing involved sampling participants and collecting and analyzing the data. A sample of 251 (n = 251) individuals from formal and informal water user groups on the Tanzanian side of the Lake Victoria Basin participated in testing the framework. The study adopted the cross-sectional design to a mixed research approach. Furthermore, it used three quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques: Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), and Questionnaire Administration (QA). Each FGDs session accommodated a group of participants with 9 – 12 members across the selected sites. KIIs targeted groups network leaders, water resource managers at various levels, and other individuals with potential information. Gathered dataset was cleaned, summarized, and analyzed using descriptive, correlation, and content analytical methods. The study capitalized on the strength of Tableau and R statistics to produce the visualizations that support the descriptive analysis of the data. Furthermore, the study used R and MS Excel software to establish the relationships among the variables. Results indicated the prominent use of mobile as ICTs for freshwater management activities. Furthermore, mobile-based tools such as SMS, voice call, image and video supported these activities to attain some indicators of SDGs related to water resource management. The study concludes that the framework contributes to understanding the contextual issues on ICT, freshwater management and SDGs.

Shifting Waters: The Challenges of Transitioning from Freshwater to Treated Wastewater Irrigation in the Northern Jordan Valley

Jordan’s water scarcity prompted a national plan whereby treated wastewater is utilized to amend agricultural irrigation water so as to reallocate freshwater to urban/domestic uses. The policy, however, has engendered farmers’ resistance in the Northern Jordan Valley (NJV), causing a stalemate in putting new infrastructure into operation. This research investigated the socio-economic causes of farmer resistance and contestation, and examined the government’s institutional approach to overcome the challenges. We found that the perceived risks of wastewater reuse such as salinization and restrictions from international markets figure prominently in the farmers resistance. As yet, farmers have managed to avoid the shift to treated wastewater use by using the political agency of elite farmers who control the Water Users Associations. These same farmers have adopted informal water access practices to overcome freshwater shortages. At the same time, small producers who don’t have possibilities to access extra water and with less political clout seem more willing to irrigate with treated wastewater. We conclude that understanding the heterogeneous context in which the envisioned wastewater users operate is key to predicting and solving conflicts that arise in treated wastewater reuse projects.

Water tenure analysis: A case study in Nui Coc irrigation system in the Red River Basin, Vietnam

AbstractVietnam is considered to have a sound legal system for water resources management, but the enforcement of these systems remains limited. This weakness and its causes were reported in various studies on institutional arrangements. However, clear relationships among stakeholders with respect to water resources, or water tenure, and levels of implementation of water tenure governance that are related to these limitations remain undocumented. Using a new approach on water tenure analysis to identify issues and conflicts related to water tenure arrangements in a pilot area in Vietnam is the aim of this study. Most of the types of possible formal (8) and informal (7) water tenure arrangements were identified in the pilot area. The analysis of water tenure governance covering 14 aspects and the assessment of water tenure security were conducted in the study area. The study results illustrate the need to improve the implementation of law enforcement and to strengthen the process of water tenure governance. Based on the analysis results, several relevant solutions are recommended including review and update of legal framework and strengthening the enforcement of current legal regulations in Vietnam.

Media reporting on conflicts and cooperation: what does it mean for the Brahmaputra basin?

ABSTRACT This article analyses the media reporting on conflicts and cooperation in the Brahmaputra River basin. We used 2437 newspaper articles published between 2010 and 2020 from the four riparians (China, India, Bhutan and Bangladesh) to explain the science–media interlinkages and what print media reports on conflicts and cooperation. We have found that most articles focus on conflicts, especially relating to hydropower development, data and information asymmetry, and disaster governance. There is limited media reporting on the avenues of cooperation such as informal water diplomacy, collaborative research opportunities, and the community and the culture that brings the riparians together.

Making Informal Water Distribution Work: Collective Agency and Self-Organization in Informal Areas of Xochimilco, Mexico City

Global environmental change can disproportionately impact vulnerable populations in informal settlements already struggling with diminished access to resources, conditions of poverty, and other inequalities. Simultaneously, climate variability is projected to increase global water scarcity and make “formal access” to water (i.e., through gray infrastructure sponsored by a centralized government) not only politically unlikely but also physically unfeasible. Cities will need alternative ways of delivering water to informal settlements that are reliable, sufficient, affordable, environmentally efficient, and fair. Using data from two informal settlements in the Xochimilco Municipality (Mexico City), we explore current informal arrangements for water access and delivery, and what roles are played by governments, water truck drivers, and residents. We found that self-organization through collective agency and community leadership were key for effective water delivery through private or public water trucks (<em>pipas</em>). One community showed stable leadership and strong collective agency, resulting in more “efficient” public water delivery and low levels of consumption of water from private sellers. In the other community, collective agency was hindered by lack of clear leadership and self-organization, causing residents to resort to individual action (i.e., buying more private water) rather than collectively organizing to gain sufficient public access to water. Our findings suggest that collective agency enables a positive feedback loop between water truck drivers and residents which allows efficient distribution with minimum public investment from the municipality. We argue that the explicit acknowledgement of the role of collective agency and its adequate compensation to create new agreements would create opportunities for more sustainable alternatives of water delivery in communities trapped in informal regimes of water distribution.

Demystifying piped water supply: Formality and informality in (peri)urban water provisioning

Water utilities have favoured the modern ideal of piped networks and infrastructure that is reproduced in policies and discourses about achieving ambitious water targets. In this article, using ethnographic insights from an urbanising village of New Delhi called Rawta, we build on work that challenges the myth of formal water as ‘piped’ water and informal water as ‘non-piped’ and explore both piped and non-piped water as dynamic and socially negotiated water regimes. We analyse how water regimes are shaped by complex constellations of formal and informal actors, institutions and technological practices. What constitutes piped water supply in Rawta is in fact largely constituted by an elaborate informal network of underground pipes and water pumps laid down to realise very specific local water needs. We explore what this kind of informality means for drinking water supply in rapidly urbanising peripheries.

Water insecurity, housing tenure, and the role of informal water services in Nairobi’s slum settlements

Presently, about one billion people reside in slums around the world, creating an ongoing urbanization and development challenge. Slum settlements lack tenure security, posing an additional challenge for municipal and national governments in providing basic services. In particular, safe and affordable access to water for slum residents remains unmet, as slum settlements often lack municipal water supply coverage and rely on small-scale informal water services. We examined the dynamics between housing tenure status (tenancy vs ownership), water service types, and water insecurity among households in three slum settlements in Nairobi, Kenya. Using a cross-culturally validated 11-item Household Water Insecurity Experience (HWISE) scale, we identified a key link between housing tenure status and water insecurity, based on survey data from 556 households. We found that water insecurity in the study sites is a significant challenge because of the link between housing tenure and access to different water service types. As such, water insecurity scores among tenants were significantly higher than homeowners, and this association persists even after controlling for household characteristics. Furthermore, a higher percentage of homeowners had access to formal water services than tenants and accessing water from informal water providers was related to higher water insecurity. Our results highlight the need for development interventions in slums to consider housing tenure of residents when planning interventions to alleviate water insecurity. To meet the goal of ‘equitable water for all’ set by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), governments must also take key steps to resolve housing tenure injustice and expand home ownership in slum settlements.

Aquifers and climate: Incentives, information and institutions

Sustainable water provision for rural and urban territories, demands the understanding of institutions and incentives governing groundwater use under climate change. The extant institutional design in Colombia falls short to sustainably manage pervasive groundwater extraction and rule enforcement. This article is aimed at understanding the extant contractual delegation of groundwater extraction on farmers as the main water users across the country. This understanding is a relevant first step before undertaking the improvement of institutional arrangements to pursue real sustainability objectives of water use for agriculture. Despite pervasive free-riding water access, to a certain extent, extraction permits act like social contracts with implicit clauses determined by the law. In entitling extraction permits, principals unavoidably delegate on agents, although their interests tend to diverge. In this relationship, socio-physical information about groundwater status is certainly asymmetric, which is not problematic per se. Difficulties arise from widened gaps between groundwater management information portions managed by different actors. Besides, contract design should operate under the natural limits of aquifer systems, which are usually recognized after granting extraction permits. Notwithstanding crude caveats should be considered: incomplete delegation and hidden institutions exists, and if ignorance on informal and formal water volumes extracted continue, sustainable management of aquifers would not only be incomplete but an illusion. Real sustainable management of aquifer systems when deciding upon water extraction permits, should incorporate aquifer limits as an ex-ante condition and innovative incentives that trigger institutions towards capped aquifer extractions.

Smallholder Farmers’ Perceptions on the Usefulness of Local Knowledge in Improving Water User Rights in Kiru Valley Tanzania

Purpose: This paper intended to investigate why local knowledge (LK) is becoming an important aspect of water management in semi-arid basins to increase crises of water user rights around the world, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.&#x0D; Design/Methodology/Approach: The paper adopted a cross-sectional research design to make sense of the existing situation. Data were collected using qualitative methods. A sample size of 70 water users was involved in the study. Triangulation of research methods was used to collect qualitative data. Qualitative data were summarized using content analysis while quantitative data were summarized using SPSS.&#x0D; Findings: The results showed the presence of LK has an influence on water use in the valley. The local community in the valley was unable to show up its all influence because of formal water institutions. The formal and LK institutions were interlinked in their operations. However, the local community elders were unable to resolve water conflicts because of not recognized by the formal water institutions. Concerted efforts are needed to build the capacity of the local community in ensuring water user rights.&#x0D; Research Limitation: The limitation of this study was the unavailability of the community elders and the language barrier e.g., Iraqw affected the data collection and analysis of the study.&#x0D; Practical Implication: The study will bring new knowledge to formal and informal water institutions that can help smallholder farmers to use water effectively and wisely.&#x0D; Social Implication: The perceived information is useful for policy makers and other key actors in formulating effective institutions to engage the local community in water management.&#x0D; Originality/Value: This is a relevant study that seeks to develop a locally based institutional framework to enhance water user rights in the valley.

Positive incentives for managing groundwater in the presence of informal water markets: perspectives from India

Abstract Groundwater is rapidly declining in India. A history of subsidized well-drilling, pumps, and energy with minimal restrictions on well installation, in a landscape characterized by millions of smallholder farmers renders standard ‘market-based’ approaches such as water pricing and quotas on abstraction challenging to introduce from a cost, political and institutional perspective. Instead, federal and state governments are experimenting with positive incentive programs, which draw from payments-for-ecosystem-service-type market approaches, by rewarding reductions in groundwater abstraction rather than penalizing abstraction. Whether such programs succeed will depend, among other things, on the state of informal groundwater markets (IGMs) where wells owners supply irrigation services to other farmers, often smaller ones, for a charge; in addition to irrigating their own fields. While IGMs are quite extensive, data on them is poor and outdated, and are often overlooked in the design of positive incentive programs. This oversight can also detrimentally affect the access to irrigation of smaller farmers who purchase these services. Representative and systematic data on IGMS would help policy markers design positive incentive programs that are informed by the tradeoffs between reducing abstraction of groundwater and its welfare implications for sellers and buyers of irrigation services.

(Un)Affordability of Informal Water Systems: Disparities in a Comparative Case Study in Beirut, Lebanon

Achieving affordable and equitable access to water for all remains a challenge worldwide. In areas suffering from chronic water shortages, communities pay high costs for alternative informal water sources (such as tanker trucks, bottled water, and wells) to meet their daily water needs. This study examines water costs of informal sources and overall affordability disparities for two communities of different socioeconomic status in Beirut, Lebanon. Water is often unaffordable for both of these communities. Overall, 6% of household income is spent on purchasing water (compared to an average global percentages of 3% to 5%). There are also significant disparities between the communities: lower income residents pay 2.2 times more of their income to secure water, and more than half of these residents (55% of households) spend more than 5% of their income on water. To overcome water shortages, these residents turn to informal water sources, but at significant additional cost. These costs and impacts on lower income residents are high and inequitable. We propose strategies to address cost, quality and quantity issues for informal sources.