Informal Retail Research Articles

Do Retailers Compete Against Informal Firms? A Comparison of the Periods of the Global Crisis and Post-Crisis

This study investigates the transformation of competitive dynamics between formal sector retailers and their informal sector counterparts in Eastern European and Central Asian countries after the 2008-2009 global financial crisis. The absence of extensive government bailouts in these regions intensified the economic repercussions of the crisis. This study used data from the BEEPS II and BEEPS IV (i.e. Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey) surveys conducted by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Bank with a focus on informal competition in Eastern Europe and Central Asia based on data from owners or top-managers of companies working in this region. To investigate the impact of the global crisis on informal competition for retailers, survey results in 2008 (“crisis period”) were compared with the data in 2013 (“post-crisis period”). Non-parametric tests, specifically the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon tests, were used to compare the 2008 and 2013 results. Binary logistic regressions were used to identify factors influencing the perception of competition from the informal sector (Pearson correlation coefficients and assessed Variance Inflation Factors to detect multicollinearity issues). Findings reveal a significant shift post-crisis shift with a reduced proportion of formal sector retailers competing with informal firms. Notably, this effect is statistically insignificant for retailers with sole proprietorships and partnerships and those with internationally recognized quality certifications. Moreover, research highlights a diminished perception of informal competitors as substantial hindrances to retailers’ business operations post-crisis. However, this observation is not statistically significant for retail businesses structured as partnerships. Logistic regression indicates that smaller firms, firms led by a more experienced top manager, and firms with a female top manager are more prone to perceive competition from the informal sector. Furthermore, this study delves into the factors shaping retailers’ perceptions across post-Soviet and other transition countries, revealing differences in the impact of firm size and female ownership. This nuanced investigation contributes depth to the current literature concerning the interconnections between formal and informal retail sectors. It offers a comparative analysis focusing on post-Soviet states and other transitioning nations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

From Streets to Tables: Bottom–Up Co-creation Case Studies for Healthier Food Environments in Vietnam and Nigeria

Current food systems fail to provide equity, sustainability, and positive health outcomes, thus underscoring the critical need for their transformation. Intervening in food environments holds substantial promise for contributing to this much-needed transformation. Despite scholars and practitioners often recognizing the necessity for bottom–up approaches, there is a dearth of empirical investigations evaluating the potential of these approaches to contribute to food system transformations in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Our study aimed to address this research gap, providing a unique perspective in this regard. Drawing on evidence from two co-creation case studies conducted with small-scale informal fruit and vegetable vendors and poor consumers in Vietnam and Nigeria from January 2020 to December 2021, we explored the relevance of bottom–up community-engaged co-creation processes in intervening within LMICs’ food retail environments. Employing a mixed-methods approach that includes quantitative surveys, qualitative interviews, participatory workshops, and focus group discussions, we demonstrated that bottom–up co-creation processes involving marginalized socioeconomic groups can generate retail-level innovations that are tailored to informal retail contexts, whereas remaining aligned with established top–down theories and literature pertaining to food environments and healthy diets. We provided empirical evidence highlighting how both vendors and consumers respond positively to the co-created innovations. Expanding upon our results, we offered methodological insights applicable to interventions targeted at food environments in LMICs, and considerations for future research or development initiatives in this domain. Our findings revealed the capacity of vulnerable stakeholders to actively engage in public health initiatives and contribute to developing innovative solutions that are context-specific and conducive to the adoption of healthier dietary practices. These results confirm the potential of bottom–up, co-creation, real-world interventions within informal settings to contribute toward fostering inclusive transformation of food systems.

What makes consumers buy from the informal rather than formal retail market? A consumption value perspective

Purpose This paper aims to understand consumption values buying from informal retail markets (i.e., street vendor retailing). It also explores why consumers prefer daily necessary goods from the informal compared to the formal retail market (such as supermarkets, retail chain outlets and e-commerce). Design/methodology/approach Employing the qualitative research approach, this study collected data from nine respondents in two areas in Malaysia. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and analysed using the thematic analysis technique. Only representative verbatim codes were presented under five themes of consumption value theory. Findings Consumers are triggered by the convenience, ease, and exclusive products (conditional value), friendly and known relationship with informal sellers, as well as the availability of some particular food items (emotional value) and lower price and freshness of groceries (functional value) while buying from informal compared to formal retail vendor. Research limitations/implications This study provides knowledge implications to the consumption value theory. Functional, emotional, and conditional values are the dominant components of purchase behaviour in informal compared to formal retail channels. Social values are common, whereas epistemic value is more substantial in formal retailing. Practical implications Findings are helpful for informal retail businesses to understand consumers' buying behaviour. Informal retail owners should ensure that commodities are fresh, highly affordable and available in the local communities. Building a friendly relationship with consumers would be a key to the success of this retail sector. Social implications Authorities should support informal sellers to set up mobile retail stores in residential areas. This effort would offer greater convenience to both parties in informal businesses and ensure informal sellers' financial and social well-being. Originality/value Despite the widespread acceptance of buying goods from informal retail vendors, research on consumption value in informal retailing is largely overlooked. Previous research primarily deals with formal market phenomena due to their size and economic contribution. Consequently, current literature lacks an understanding of why consumers prefer to buy from informal retail vendors for their daily groceries when the formal retail channel could fulfil similar needs. Using a qualitative research design, this research uncovers consumers' buying motives from informal compared to formal vendors.

A Informal Sector Self-Employed Workers’ Old Age Pension Scheme in Retail Sector in Zimbabwe

The high incidence of informality in Zimbabwe implies that a large proportion of the adult population does not have access to contributory pension schemes during their working lives, rendering them ineligible for old-age pensions. The primary goal of this research is to develop a pragmatic informal retail sector noncontributory old-age pension scheme in Zimbabwe. The study drew empirical evidence from a comprehensive countrywide study using mixed-methods research. The study concluded that several factors, including the respondents' demographic characteristics, are important considerations in developing an effective non-contributory old-age informal sector pension scheme. Based on the study's findings, the study proposes alternative non-contributory old-age informal sector pension schemes, such as financing the non-contributory old-age social pension, determining the monthly amount of a non-contributory old-age pension, and gradually covering a non-contributory old-age pension gap. The study recommends the introduction of a non-contributory informal sector retirement pension fully funded by the government. Keywords: retail informal sector old-age pension scheme; social security; informal sector; Zimbabwe.

Drivers of formal and informal retail patronage in emerging markets

PurposeThis study examines how formal retail formats (FRFs), and informal retail formats (IRFs) may coexist as substitutes and complements in emerging markets because of store patronage driven by customers’ chronic shopping orientations, and differences in salesperson consultation in the two retail formats.Design/methodology/approachUsing a shopping motivational orientation framework, we develop and test a moderated mediation model using survey data from 515 shoppers of formal and informal grocery retail outlets in India.FindingsWhile task-focused and experiential-focused shopping orientations influence both FRF and IRF patronage, store satisfaction mediates these relationships and crucially attenuates the negative impact of task-focused orientation on FRF patronage. Salesperson consultation moderates the mediating effects of satisfaction in the link between shopping orientation and patronage of both FRFs and IRFs.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings suggest that FRFs and IRFs could coexist as complements and substitutes when patronage is examined as repeated visits determined by shopping orientation, mediated by satisfaction and moderated by salesperson consultation.Practical implicationsFor FRFs and IRFs to be complements, both formats must prioritize their distinctive attributes that satisfy a consumer's chronic shopping orientation. Substitution depends on how both retail formats prioritize salesperson consultation and in-store characteristics that appeal to consumers’ chronic orientation during specific shopping trips.Originality/valueWhilst FRFs must satisfy task-focused shoppers to compete with IRFs, salesperson consultation can inhibit such satisfaction. However, the extent of coexistence between FRFs and IRFs depends on how each format leverages salesperson consultation to enhance satisfaction of experiential-focused shoppers.

Food safety in Latin American informal food establishments

Background and aimInformal food establishments are an important source of food due to their increased affordability of products and convenience. Food security and safety are two key factors that must coexist for a proper functioning of the food system. In Latin America, the safety of food is less analyzed than food security, although it is central to people’s health, as well as to their personal sustainability. Since informal food establishments are popular food sources in Latin America, this research aims to examine the presence of foodborne pathogens in food products from such establishments.MethodsThis research will be conducted as narrative literature review, collecting data from all publications in Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America between January 1, 2018, and May 31, 2023. The databases searched were PubMed and Web of Science. The search included pathogens such as bacteria, parasites and viruses. The languages of the articles assessed were English and Spanish.ResultsThe analysis was based on 32 articles focusing on seven of all Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America. The pathogens found belonged either to a bacteria type, or to a parasite. No viruses were investigated within the selection of articles. The widest variety of pathogens was among bacteria. The most frequently identified bacteria belonged to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The food products examined ranged from animal products to fruit and vegetables, fish, seafood and already-prepared dishes or juices. The informal food establishments where the studies conducted their analyses were markets, backyard selling points, street establishments or convenience food stores.ConclusionIdentifying pathogens in food products commercialized at different informal retail points has impacts for the safety of the food from personal sustainability viewpoint. Therefore, efforts need to be directed toward better support of the informal food sector in their provision of safe food. Further investigation could trace the exact sources of infection, while public health officials can implement safety programs in cooperation with food vendors.

Mediating Role of Dynamic Capabilities on the Relationship Between Organizational Ambidexterity and Firm Performance of Supermarkets in Kenya

Several businesses have established successful strategies in order to move their operations toward the desired future position. However, problems with performance have made it difficult to achieve the suggested future position. The possibility to grow and expand has been found in some supermarkets that embrace organizational ambidexterity. Existing research suggests that supermarkets poor performance can be attributed to informal retail competition, a lack of resource exploitation and exploration, ongoing employee training and development, and consumer preference for convenience because most informal retail locations are more easily accessible. Dynamic capabilities are a firm's ability to adapt and respond to changing environments effectively. They involve processes, routines, and skills that enable an organization to identify, assess, and seize opportunities or respond to threats. Examples of dynamic capabilities in the supermarket industry might include the ability to quickly adjust product offerings in response to changing customer preferences or rapidly reconfigure supply chain operations in response to disruptions. Dynamic capabilities can mediate the relationship between organizational ambidexterity and supermarket performance by enhancing exploration and exploitation. Organizational ambidexterity involves both exploration and exploitation activities. Dynamic capabilities play a crucial role in facilitating these activities. Supermarkets operate in a dynamic and competitive environment. Dynamic capabilities help them adapt to changing market conditions. For example, if a supermarket identifies a shift in customer preferences towards organic products, dynamic capabilities can help in quickly sourcing and stocking these products, thereby improving performance.

How Immigrant Shopkeepers in Johannesburg Townships Succeed: A Customer's Eye View

In the face of struggling native-owned informal grocery businesses, immigrant-owned shops in Johannesburg townships have demonstrated remarkable success. While research on this topic has been primarily informed by shopkeeper data, this article explores the phenomenon from the viewpoint of customers. Given that customers play a significant role in facilitating the success of businesses, the dearth of a customer perspective of the success of immigrant shopkeepers presents a gap in knowledge. This study addresses this gap by investigating the interaction between shopkeepers and customers from the perspective of customers. Drawing on the theories of customer value and customer satisfaction, the author proposes that customers prefer to patronize immigrant shopkeepers due to the considerable value they provide. The study was conducted in the Johannesburg township of Alexandra and involved the collection of cross-sectional quantitative data from 400 households. The findings indicate that customers patronize immigrant-owned businesses due to the superior value they receive, thereby enabling their success. This research highlights the importance of providing value to attract customers and contributes to the literature on the role of customers in informal business performance. Furthermore, the study sheds light on the contribution of customer reciprocation of shopkeeper value and has important implications for policymakers, business owners, and scholars alike. It underscores the need for a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics underlying the success of immigrant entrepreneurs in South Africa's informal retail sector.

Factors determining the marketing of products to townships amongst SMEs within the retail sector

The needs of the customers residing in townships are generally met by informal retailers operating spaza and tuck shops. These retailers sell personal and household products such as cooking oil, sugar, maize flour, snacks, soap, paraffin, candles, matches, disinfectants, cigarettes, and prepaid airtime for mobile phones. However, several factors determine the success and marketing of these products to townships by retailers. Therefore, this study sought to analyse the factors determining the marketing of products to townships amongst Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) within the retail sector. Thus, a literature review was conducted to collect information to identify factors determining the marketing of products to townships amongst SMEs within the retail sector using several databases. The year 2012 signaled the commencement of an organised search for publications that were pertinent to the topic. The researcher searched for journals published on township retail and marketing using buzzwords relevant to the current study. The findings of this study show that the following are marketing factors: product quality, product price, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and customer service. Non-marketing factors encompass competition, the transport system, road infrastructure, security, licensing and regulatory requirements, and business location. Therefore, retailers are asked to pay particular attention to these factors because they are crucial to marketing and achieving a competitive advantage.

Chromium Concentrations in Automotive Paints from Retail Stores in Kenya

Chromium (Cr) is among the heavy metals that are added to automotive paints to provide protection against corrosion and reflective properties. However, exposure to hexavalent chromium Cr(VI), which is the toxic form of Cr is associated with adverse health effects such as lung cancer. The study, therefore, assessed Cr levels in the automotive paints commonly used by spray painters in informal settings in Nairobi City. Chromium concentrations were determined in triplicates in the three sets of automotive paint samples in red, blue and green colours. The same samples were also used for the determination of lead content and the findings of the study were published elsewhere. The automotive paint samples were procured from 8 formal and informal retail stores. The Cr concentrations was also analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The mean ± standard deviation (SD) of Cr levels obtained from informal retail shops ranged from 120.5±10.6 to 2771.9±35.6 parts per million (ppm). On the contrary, those from the formal retail stores were significantly lower (p < 0.05), and were in the range of 39.3±7.0 to 461.9±11.1 ppm. The Cr levels in automotive paints varied greatly across different colours and retail shops. Substantial levels were observed in almost all paint samples purchased from the informal retail shops except one retail shop. The elevated Cr levels in various colours of automotive paints used by spray painters in the informal sector call for a comprehensive assessment of Cr in these settings along with health-driven policies to address related health impacts.

Evaluation of the contributions of street trading on performances of selected FMCG companies in Nigeria

Aim/purpose – Street traders are seen selling all kinds of goods to patrons who pass-by or who are vehicular traffics on Nigerian roads, particularly major intra and inter-state roads in urban and rural areas. The study assessed the perspectives of salespersons from six selected FMCG companies regarding the extent to which street trading has contribut- ed to the overall performances of their respective firms. Design/methodology/approach – The study was done as a cross-sectional research, encompassing individuals from all levels of the sales departments of six selected FMCG companies in Lagos, Nigeria. It utilized a survey methodology by distributing a 39-item questionnaire, which employed a 5-point Likert scale to a sample of 174 participants. These individuals were picked from a larger population of 308 salespersons who were employed by the selected FMCG companies. The questionnaires were administered by email and the response rate was 56.32%. Descriptive statistics and chi-square test to determine the dependence or otherwise of the variables. Findings – The research findings established that the respondents perceived street trad- ing as a contributor to the sales performance of the FMCG companies they worked for. Among the findings was the perception that street trading had been an integral part of the channels used for distributing their companies’ products. This study also highlighted that salespersons did not consider the government’s actions as impeding their organizations from formally recognizing or as any hindrance to integrating street trading as a channel of distribution. The respondents’ views suggested that other factors are responsible for the lack of formal acknowledgement of street trading as a means through which end consumers are served. Research implications/limitations – The study affirmed the economic importance of street trading and the positive impact it has on organizations in the formal sector. It also gave insight into how FMCG companies and street traders groups can collaborate to influence favorable government policies towards street trading. Urban development planners can also find ways to provide for street trading by allocating zones where this activity can be carried out in urban areas. Originality/value/contribution – An attempt to synthesize the impact of an aspect of the informal economy on largely formal sector operators. The study provided a perspec- tive on street trading, which has not received much scholarly attention as a channel of distribution. Keywords: FMCG companies, informal retail, street trading, street vendors. JEL Classification: D3, E2, F1.

Lead content in automotive paints purchased at formal and informal outlets in Kenya

Lead (Pb) is added to automotive paints to prevent corrosion on metallic surfaces, for decorative colours, and for reflective properties to heighten visibility, and enhanced drying time, and durability. However, there are substitutes for all of these applications and Pb is highly toxic to human health and the environment. Through concerted efforts, leaded gasoline was phased out and currently, the focus is on lead-based paints. Leaded automotive paint used for spray painting activities often conducted in close proximity to human habitation raises public health concerns over possible exposure. This study was therefore undertaken to assess Pb levels in automotive paints frequently used by informal spray painters. A total of thirty-two (n = 32) cans of automotive paints were purchased in 4 sets of red, blue, green and white colours from eight formal and informal retail shops. Lead levels in the paint samples were analyzed in triplicates using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. All the automotive paints from the informal retail shops had Pb levels that ranged from 220 to 2740 ppm, and exceeded the regulatory limit of 90 ppm. The blue paint from the informal store had the highest Pb levels which were 30 times of the set limit. On the contrary, the paints from the formal stores had significantly (p < 0.05) lower Pb levels that ranged from 80.7 to 580 ppm than those of the informal stores. Although only one paint sample from the former retail shop had Pb levels within the limit. In general, the elevated Pb levels in automotive paints that are used in an unregulated environment are potential sources of exposure and environmental contamination. The study urgently calls for enforcement of the regulatory limits and comprehensive Pb exposure assessments in this sector.

Antecedents of Customer Bargain Satisfaction In Informal Retail Markets: Insights from Street Shoppers in Lagos, Nigeria

This study aims to expand the understanding of customer satisfaction by looking at the factors that explain the under-investigated dimension of customer bargain satisfaction in informal retail markets. The study adopted an exploratory sequential approach by conducting two focus group discussions and administering a cross-sectional survey of 1012 shoppers in Lagos, Nigeria. Factors such as product scarcity, product quality, customer identification with retailers, repurchase frequency, perception of the retail environment, and ethical sales behaviour affect customer bargain satisfaction in informal retail markets. No known studies have investigated the dimension of customer bargain satisfaction. The focus on Africa's informal retail context unpacks situational conditions that trigger consumers' bargain behaviour.

A Typology of Food Environments in the Pacific Region and Their Relationship to Diet Quality in Solomon Islands.

Extensive literature describes the importance of food environments (FEs) as a driver of food choices and nutrition outcomes; yet existing FE frameworks do not adequately capture the diversity of FEs relevant to the Pacific Region. This limits identification of opportunities in food systems to reduce the multiple burden of malnutrition. We present a conceptual typology of FEs including six primary FEs relevant in the Pacific; wild; cultivated; kin and community; informal retail; formal retail; and food aid and services. We then apply this typology to food acquisition data from Solomon Islands 2012/13 Household Income and Expenditure Survey and analyse the relationship between FEs and diet quality. The cultivated FE accounts for 60% of the quantity of food acquired nationally, followed by wild (15%), kin and community (9%), and formal and informal retail FEs (8% each), with wide variation between urban and rural households, provinces and wealth groups. Reliance on different FEs is a significant predictor of diet quality and affirms the importance of subsistence fisheries and agriculture, and community and kinship networks. Integration of a FE typology such as the one presented here in commonly conducted household expenditure surveys offers significant opportunity to advance our understanding of food system leverage points to improve nutrition and health.

Post-COVID-19 retail landscapes

This paper offer insight to the substantial role of the small and medium retailers (S&amp;M) and how Covid-19 has impacted the sector. The economic contribution of this group of retailers have been noted to be high. Policy measures of the government of South Africa in response to the pandemic was severe on the informal retailers who were stopped from operating their businesses. The paper highlighted the internal and external struggles and opportunities of the retailers. There is the need to revalue the sector according to its contribution to the society, assist the retailers to improve on their infrastructure, formalise their practises, embark on reform programmes aimed at improving their capacities.

Interactions between Food Environment and (Un)healthy Consumption: Evidence along a Rural-Urban Transect in Viet Nam

There is limited evidence on food environment in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) and the application of food environment frameworks and associated metrics in such settings. Our study examines how food environment varies across an urban-peri-urban-rural gradient from three sites in North Viet Nam and its relationship with child undernutrition status and household consumption of processed food. By comparing three food environments, we present a picture of the food environment in a typical emerging economy with specific features such as non-market food sources (own production and food transfers) and dominance of the informal retail sector. We combined quantitative data (static geospatial data at neighborhood level and household survey) and qualitative data (in-depth interviews with shoppers). We found that across the three study sites, traditional open and street markets remain the most important outlets for respondents. Contrary to the common concern that urban households are the major consumers of processed foods, peri-urban and rural areas on average had higher consumption of ultra-processed foods than in urban areas. The low price levels of processed foods and the presence of processed foods even among the traditional convenience stores, those in closest proximity to the rural households, offer potential explanations of this result. Regarding undernutrition, low retail diversity and a household’s dependence on own production have important implications for the high prevalence of child undernutrition in rural areas. Our findings add to the current discussion on the critical role of the food environment on nutrition, such as the potential link between economic marginalization and access to food, and the role of food supply channels in consumption of processed foods.

Does Retail Food Diversity in Urban Food Environments Influence Consumer Diets?

The food environment influences consumer diets in significant yet underexplored ways. In this study, we assess the way in which the Nairobi urban food environment—availability, accessibility, affordability, desirability, convenience and marketing—influences the dietary choices and quality of poor urban consumers, by combining market-level diversity scores (MLDS) with household and individual data collected from resource-poor (slum) neighbourhoods in Nairobi, Kenya. We find that urban-poor settings are characterized by a variety of food retail venues, including informal markets such as kiosks, mom-and-pop shops and tabletop vendors, as well as modern retail outlets such as supermarkets. Most of these food outlets predominantly sell unhealthy, highly-processed and energy-dense foods rather than nutritious foods such as vegetables, fruits and animal products. Our analyses show that supermarkets have the highest MLDS, yet they do not significantly influence the diets of resource-poor households. However, a high MLDS among informal retail outlets has a positive association with diet quality; conversely, open-air markets have a negative association. The nutritional status of urban-poor consumers can be improved by promoting the diversification of healthy, nutritious foods across traditional retail outlets and improving accessibility of the outlets to consumers.

The Future of Formal Retail in Sub-Saharan Africa: Brief Review and Opinion

As Sub-Saharan Africa economies boomed in the early 90s, formal retail trade grew as well. However, most of the Sub-Saharan economies’ wealth depends on commodity price performance which in turn has impeded the growth of retail sector. The focus on Africa from the major retailers’ perspective has always been short-term. As the challenges continue eroding opportunities, many are re-thinking whether there is hope in the long-term. While there is no heterogeneity, as each country is at a different stage in retail development, challenges of inflation, forex shortages, poor infrastructure development, policy shifts, and general government inefficiencies are not uncommon. Almost 90% of informal trade makes up the retail sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. The informal retail growth, riding on the political support of the governments, is crowding out the formalized retail growth. This work explores the body of existing knowledge on formalized retailing in Sub-Saharan Africa and focuses on how retailing has evolved in Sub-Saharan countries of Nigeria, Angola, South Africa, Zambia, and Malawi. The paper concludes by identifying the retail growth gaps from retail chains and the governments in the Sub-Saharan region. Recommendations for sustainability are highlighted. Future research gaps are equally identified to advance the understanding of formalized retail importance, challenges, and prospects for Sub-Saharan Africa.

Quality characterization of bread retailed in Nairobi county, Kenya: Physico-chemical and microbial profiles

With the ever-increasing intake and diversification of bread in sub-Saharan Africa, greater risks of food fraud are posed. The risks are even higher in the urban areas where both the formal and informal retail exist. Product diversification induced by incorporation of different ingredients in bread processing aggravates the risk of malpractices in processing that is evidenced in product quality. The current study employed a cross-sectional survey of bread retailed in the fourteen supermarkets located in Nairobi County, Kenya to determine their physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics. The study showed that brown bread had significantly (p&lt;0.001) higher moisture and water activity, although the fibre and total solids in the brown bread were significantly (p&lt;0.01) lower than the white bread. The greatest variability in the physico-chemical attributes was found in the acid insoluble ash, with a coefficient of variation of 82.04%. The highest proportion of the bread, 58.9%, fell short of meeting the regulatory stipulations of the acid insoluble ash. Significantly (p&lt;0.05) higher proportion of the brown bread (60.7%) than the white bread (4.4%) had crude fibre contents less optimal than the regulatory stipulations. The greatest adherence to product quality stipulations was found in yeast and mould counts (100%), moisture content (99.1%) and pH aqueous extract (95.5%). Both the brands of bread and retail outlets had quarter of them recording higher moisture, water activity and total acid insoluble ash than the averages of breads traded in supermarkets; whereas the pH, fibre and total solids were lower(kmean clusters=2). Eight principal components maximally explained product variability in the breads, with similar trends of composition between moisture and protein, and fibre and total solids,whereby the latter pair had a negative correlation with the former. In conclusion, the study found that the formal sector still falls short of product quality regulatory stipulations,pointing to greater need to strengthen surveillance component of food control for this sector.

Food networks and urban informality in Mumbai, India

PurposeTraditionally, urban informality has been discussed in terms of housing and markets, usually along the periphery of urban areas where there is disinvestment and decline. This article looks at urban informality through the lens of informal fresh food retail throughout the city of Mumbai, India. In India, fresh produce has traditionally been sold in informal street markets comprising vendors that operate through carts and make-shift stalls set-up on the streets. This article aims to assess the conditions surrounding fresh produce retail that fuel its informality.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a mixed methods approach by spatially analyzing the location of informal fresh food vendors in ArcGIS, developing a qualitative analysis of the level of proliferation of this network through interviews conducted with vendors and conducting surveys of residents' access patterns and purchasing habits for fresh produce in the city.FindingsResults from this study indicate that the role of density, transportation systems, domestic/household structure, cultural traditions and a bureaucratic system rife with its own challenges have resulted in a distinct infrastructure of food retail networks that has harvested forms of inequalities and injustices that inherently fuel this informal economy.Originality/valueThere is no published study to date that has been done to spatially assess the informal food network in any dense city in India, let alone Mumbai to date. Urban informality, by its nature, is hard to capture, and yet this study takes a holistic view of the food systems in Mumbai, by addressing the location, supply (through vendor interviews) and demand factors (through resident surveys).