Informal Recycling Activities Research Articles

Life cycle analysis on sequential recovery of copper and gold from waste printed circuit boards

Informal recycling activities of waste printed circuit boards, such as pyrolysis and landfilling, cause severe environmental harm to society. Pyrolysis of resin and polymer fraction leads to the generation of toxic effluents, and landfilling causes the leaching of heavy metals into the groundwater. A sustainable and eco-friendly way to recover base and precious elements will be an economically attractive option. Current research studied the cradle-to-gate environmental impacts of the sequential recovery of copper and gold through delamination, leaching, solvent extraction, electrowinning and cementation from waste printed circuit boards with the help of life cycle assessment.GaBi software was utilized to assess environmental impacts such as global warming, abiotic depletion (fossil), acidification potential and human toxicity potential during the process. Inventory data was collected by conducting several experiments and from optimizing parameters for recycling and separating 4.53 g of copper and 2.25 mg of gold from 16 g of component-free waste printed circuit boards. Results indicate that the chemical pre-treatment or delamination process for separating metal clads from the non-metallic fraction is primarily involved in the impact category. The higher impact during delamination is due to electricity consumption. The proposed study also corroborates the industrial viability of recycling valuable metals from waste printed circuit boards to minimize the environmental impacts. The outcomes of this work could be beneficial in creating the environmental guiding principle for WPCBs recycling plants.

Gaseous elemental mercury emissions from informal E-Waste recycling facilities in Pakistan

Detrimental effects of mercury (Hg) on ecosystems and human health have been well-documented. Whereas emissions of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) from e-waste recycling have been reported in developed countries, much less is known about the situation in the Global South. Using a total of 132 passive air samplers, seasonally resolved concentrations of GEM in air were measured continuously at 32 informal e-waste recycling facilities and background location in Pakistan for a period of one year between September 2020 and December 2021. Annual average GEM concentrations at the studied locations ranged from 1.8 to 92 ng m−3. Among the studied cities, higher concentrations were measured in Karachi (mean ± s.d: 17 ± 22, range: 4.2–92 ng m−3), Lahore (16 ± 4.2, 8.2–22 ng m−3) and Peshawar (15 ± 17, 4.9–80 ng m−3), while lower levels were measured in Hyderabad (6.9 ± 6.2, 3.1–25 ng m−3), consistent with a higher rate of informal recycling activities in metropolitan areas. Seasonally, higher GEM levels occurred during autumn (15 ± 16: 3.3–92 ng m−3) and summer (13 ± 8.7: 1.8–80 ng m−3) than in winter (12 ± 8.4: 2.5–49 ng m−3) and spring (9.2 ± 7.3: 1.8–80 ng m−3), possibly reflecting enhanced volatilization at higher temperatures and/or varying magnitude of recycling operations in different seasons. Policies and strict regulations related to e-waste management should be developed and implemented urgently in the country.

Spatial distribution and ecological risks of polychlorinated biphenyls in a river basin affected by traditional and emerging electronic waste recycling in South China

With development of e-waste related legislation in China, formal recycling activities are designated in some areas while informal ones are illegally transferred to emerging areas to avoid supervision. However, the resulting environmental impact and ecological risks are not clear. Here, we investigated the discharge of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to soil and aquatic environments by e-waste recycling activities in the Lian River Basin, China. The study area included a designated industrial park in the traditional e-waste recycling area (Guiyu, known as the world's largest e-waste center), several emerging informal recycling zones, and their surrounding areas and coastal area. A total of 27 PCBs were analyzed, and the highest concentration was found in an emerging site for soil (354 ng g−1) and in a traditional site for sediment (1350 ng g‐−1) respectively. The pollution levels were significantly higher in both the traditional and emerging recycling areas than in their respective upstream countryside areas (p = 0.0356 and 0.0179, respectively). Source analysis revealed that the traditional and emerging areas had similar PCB sources mainly associated with three PCB technical mixtures manufactured in Japan (KC600) and the USA (Aroclor 1260 and Aroclor 1262). The PCB pollution in their downstream areas including the coastal area was evidently affected by the formal and informal recycling activities through river runoff. The ecological risk assessments showed that PCBs in soils and sediments in the Lian River Basin could cause adverse ecotoxicological consequences to humans and aquatic organisms.

Respiratory Disorders Related to e-Waste Exposure among Workers in the Informal Sector in a Sub-Saharan African City: An Exposed Nonexposed Study.

Introduction Exposure to electrical and electronic equipment waste (e-waste) has become a growing health concern. The objective of this study was to measure the effect of exposure to e-waste on respiratory symptoms and on lung function parameters in workers involved in informal recycling activities in Cotonou city, Benin. Methods This was a cross-sectional study, in which exposed e-waste workers in Cotonou city were randomly selected. A matching nonexposed group based on age and sex was recruited from the general population. Respiratory symptoms were investigated using a questionnaire adapted from the British Medical Research Council's standardized respiratory questionnaire. Participants underwent lung function test using a portable spirometer (MIR SPIROBANK). Data were analyzed with STATA version 15 software. Results The overall prevalence of respiratory symptoms in e-waste workers was statistically higher in the exposed group (33.1% vs. 21.6%; p = 0.027). Chest tightness (11.8% vs. 2.1%; p = 0.003) and breathlessness (6.8% vs. 1.4%; p = 0.018) were the most reported symptoms by e-waste workers. Lung function testing showed a higher proportion of disorders among e-waste workers (25.0% vs. 14.9%, p = 0.029), with a higher proportion of probable restrictive (10.8% vs. 2.7, p = 0.005) and mixed (4.1% vs. 0%, p = 0.013) ventilatory disorders. Handling or working with e-waste was found associated with a significant reduction in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) by 0.4 L (95% CI: 0.3-0.6) and forced vital capacity (FVC) by 0.75 L (95% CI: 0.6-0.9) after adjustment for age, BMI, smoking habits, asthma history, and daily income. Conclusion Work involving e-waste is associated with a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and with an increased risk of FEV1 and FVC decline, as well as of lung function impairment, particularly of restrictive disorders. Further studies to better clarify this association are needed. Awareness on this major public health threat should be raised in other sub-Saharan and Asian urban areas.

Transforming and integrating informal sectors into formal e-waste management system: A case study in Guiyu, China

<abstract> <p>Minimizing informal recycling activities is critical for the sustainable end-of-life treatment of electronics. Recent studies have started to revisit the concept of informality in recycling and reported empirical examples where informal sectors coordinate with formal sectors, jointly contributing to a greener recycling solution. This case study examines the systematic effort to transform and integrate the informal sector into the formal recycling industry for managing e-waste in Guiyu, China. This paper analyzes the policy design, implementation, technology development and market establishment of Guiyu's formal sector that enabled the evolution of the local informal recycling industry. The results show that the salient success factor is to offer advanced and centralized e-waste treatment by constructing a formal recycling sector while maintaining the competitive characteristics of the old informal businesses, including manual dismantling and private e-waste collection networks. Those characteristics ensured increased reuse value and sufficient e-waste sources. Meanwhile, the study found that many challenges and conflicts during this transition are rooted in the often-overlooked societal and historical contexts that profoundly shaped the local recycling industry. Authorities of regions facing challenges regulating informal recycling of e-waste, especially developing countries, could initiate similar systems based on local realities and the collaboration between formal and informal sectors to minimize the environmental and societal consequences of unregulated informal e-waste recycling.</p> </abstract>

Empirical Investigation of Formal and Informal Sectors in Waste Recycling of the Municipal Waste Management System of Developing Countries: The Case Study of Lagos State

Municipalities in metropolitan cities of developing countries often find it difficult to cope with the onerous task of providing waste services to their citizens due to financial constraints and poor infrastructure. In most of these cities, waste collection services are grossly inadequate as less than half the population is served with regular and efficient waste services. However, the shortcomings of the formal waste management system are compensated by the activities of the informal sector engaged in waste collection and make significant contributions to the MWMS through material recovery and waste recycling. In view of this, the study focuses on the roles of the formal and informal sector in municipal waste management with regards to their impacts on the recycling rate of Lagos State. In this study, we measured and compared the recycling rates between the formal and informal sectors to determine their impacts on the recycling rates of Lagos State. The study relies on primary field data, site visits and observations backed by secondary sources to investigate the range of informal sector activities in comparison to the formal sector. The findings indicate that, while both sub-sectors play significant roles in the MWMS, the informal recycling activities contribute more to the recycling rate of Lagos state than the formal sector.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic products, indoor dust, sediment and fish from informal e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of contamination, accumulation pattern, emissions, and human exposure

Residue concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in different kinds of samples including consumer products, indoor dust, sediment and fish collected from two e-waste recycling sites, and some industrial, urban and suburban areas in Vietnam were determined to provide a comprehensive assessment of the contamination levels, accumulation pattern, emission potential and human exposure through dust ingestion and fish consumption. There was a large variation of PBDE levels in plastic parts of obsolete electronic equipment (from 1730 to 97,300ng/g), which is a common result observed in consumer plastic products reported elsewhere. PBDE levels in indoor dust samples collected from e-waste recycling sites ranged from 250 to 8740ng/g, which were markedly higher than those in industrial areas and household offices. Emission rate of PBDEs from plastic parts of disposed electronic equipment to dust was estimated to be in a range from 3.4×10-7 to 1.2×10-5 (year-1) for total PBDEs and from 2.9×10-7 to 7.2×10-6 (year-1) for BDE-209. Some fish species collected from ponds in e-waste recycling villages contained elevated levels of PBDEs, especially BDE-209, which were markedly higher than those in fish previously reported. Overall, levels and patterns of PBDE accumulation in different kinds of samples suggest significant emission from e-waste sites and that these areas are potential sources of PBDE contamination. Intakes of PBDEs via fish consumption were generally higher than those estimated through dust ingestion. Intake of BDE-99 and BDE-209 through dust ingestion contributes a large proportion due to higher concentrations in dust and fish. Body weight normalized daily intake through dust ingestion estimated for the e-waste recycling sites (0.10-3.46ng/day/kg body wt.) were in a high range as compared to those reported in other countries. Our results highlight the potential releases of PBDEs from informal recycling activities and the high degree of human exposure and suggest the need for continuous investigations on environmental pollution and toxic impacts of e-waste-related hazardous chemicals.

English

Increasing quantities of domestic and imported waste electronic and electric equipment (WEEE) stimulates a rapid development of informal recycling activities in developing countries. This economically driven recycling, oftentimes based on open burning or acid-base treatment, followed by open dumping of the residues, does not usually fit environmental and public health requirements. For the underlying research, the hypothesis was formulated that the specific conditions of dumping of residues from informal recycling activities are enhancing the leaching of hazardous substances into the ground- or surface water. Hence, this paper aims at identifying major influencing factors that affect leaching behaviour of heavy metals from WEEE components and assess environmental impact of informal WEEE recycling and dumping practice. A set of leaching tests were carried out with a homogenized sample of printed circuit boards from personal computers. The results of the study show that the concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni and Cu leached from the test material, is higher than the Dutch standard of heavy metals reference value in soil. In addition, under the toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) extraction test, 6879 ± 1342 mg/kg dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was measured. It was also confirmed that the leachability of Pb and Cd exceeds the regulatory limit of TCLP. Lead was the predominant heavy metal to leach from the waste material and 5617±739 mg/kg Pb was released by the standard pH-controlled leaching test. The column leaching test results suggested that high amount concentrations of heavy metals released were washed out before a liquid to solid (L/S) ratios of 5. Similarly, from the column leaching trend 99.3% of DOC was leached in the lower L/S ratios of (upto L/S ratio of 2). The standard pH controlled test results indicated that heavy metals were highly mobile in the acidic pH ranges. Key words: Printed circuit boards (PCBs), e-waste, leaching tests, heavy metals, dissolved organic carbon (DOC).

The Role of Informal Sector in Waste Management, A Case Study; Tafila-Jordan

Scavengers play a major role in the waste management process in developing countries. This study analyzed the informal recycling activities carried out by scavenger in the Tafila region of Jordan. The results show that scavengers have an important role in the informal solid waste management (SWM) especially in term of waste reduction, minimization and material recovery. Significant values from the scavenged material make the scavenging somewhat a profitable business for poor people and could track more in the future. Socially scavenging tends to be acceptable in the community, especially with the increasing of the poverty and employments rates and became more acceptable in rural areas as it is already in urban areas. Despite the low level of education, the awareness for the negative health effect from working with waste was very high. The organizing of the scavenger work is suggested, since it would improve their working environment, income and living conditions. Therefore it should increase their contribution significantly to resource recovery.

Heavy metal contamination of surface soil in electronic waste dismantling area: site investigation and source-apportionment analysis

The dismantling and disposal of electronic waste (e-waste) in developing countries is causing increasing concern because of its impacts on the environment and risks to human health. Heavy-metal concentrations in the surface soils of Guiyu (Guangdong Province, China) were monitored to determine the status of heavy-metal contamination on e-waste dismantling area with a more than 20 years history. Two metalloids and nine metals were selected for investigation. This paper also attempts to compare the data among a variety of e-waste dismantling areas, after reviewing a number of heavy-metal contamination-related studies in such areas in China over the past decade. In addition, source apportionment of heavy metal in the surface soil of these areas has been analysed. Both the MSW open-burning sites probably contained invaluable e-waste and abandoned sites formerly involved in informal recycling activities are the new sources of soil-based environmental pollution in Guiyu. Although printed circuit board waste is thought to be the main source of heavy-metal emissions during e-waste processing, requirement is necessary to soundly manage the plastic separated from e-waste, which mostly contains heavy metals and other toxic substances.

Waste and informal recycling activities in Hanoi, Vietnam

There is scant evidence of ‘waste being wasted’ in Hanoi: food scraps from hotels and restaurants are collected for pig farms, and even mango seeds are recycled by shampoo manufacturers. Nevertheless, the increasing amount of waste collected and the increasing numbers of people working in the streets and dump sites present a major health and safety challenge that has been ignored by the municipality. This article describes how this recycling network collects, distributes and reprocesses all of the recyclable waste generated by the people of Hanoi each day. It argues that these activities should be supported by the public sector and suggests ways in which the informal sector could be encouraged to improve the solid waste management system in Hanoi.

Economic and policy issues in resource recovery from municipal solid wastes

Resource recovery is a recognized municipal solid waste management strategy for providing cost-effective services in an environmentally sound manner. In both Western Europe and Japan, resource recovery is widely practiced as a matter of policy. In the United States many individual states are now implementing policies to increase resource recovery efforts. The absence in many developing nations of a policy framework for such efforts has resulted in economically driven informal recycling activities that are often in conflict with efficient waste management practices. This paper reviews resource recovery policies and practices in Japan and the United States, examines the economic basis for resource recovery, and discusses an array of policy instruments that can be used to encourage resource recovery.