Informal Mentoring Research Articles

Beginning music teachers’ perceptions of the transition from university to teaching in schools

Much research addresses pre-service music teacher education, yet relatively few studies have investigated the work of graduates as they make the transition into careers as music educators. This study using qualitative interview data was conducted in 2003 and examined nine music teachers’ perceptions and experiences of their transition from being a student teacher to teaching full-time. Data analysis showed that teachers: (i) valued pre-service preparation that was ‘hands-on’, although some reported missing learning about crucial aspects relevant to their work; (ii) had been assisted by formal and informal mentors; (iii) described their first-year experiences as difficult yet rewarding; and (iv) described professional needs as largely contextually driven. Findings from this study inform pre-service and in-service teacher educators, and administrators who supervise beginning teachers’ development, as they plan for professional development and mentoring opportunities for beginning music teachers. Given the complexity of the settings in which music teachers work, effective pre-service teacher education programs must be accompanied by appropriate mentoring and professional development experiences if high teacher attrition rates in music education are to be addressed.

The Role of Interpersonal Comfort in Mentoring Relationships

This research examined interpersonal comfort as a potential mediating mechanism in mentoring relationships. Results indicated that interpersonal comfort mediated the relationship between gender similarity and protege reports of career and psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to prediction, interpersonal comfort did not mediate relationships involving mentorship type (i.e., formal versus informal). However, we did find that informal mentoring and interpersonal comfort were positively associated with career mentoring. The research helps illustrate the important role that interpersonal comfort plays in the mentoring process.

Mentoring First Year Agricultural Educators: Examining A State-Mandated Induction Program

This study determined perceptions of mentoring within a state-mandated first year teaching program of agriculture teachers and their assigned resident committee members. The objectives were: 1) Describe the personal characteristics of first year teachers and committee members, 2) Describe the mentor relationships that exist, 3) Compare perceptions of mentoring among committee members, and 4) Determine if participants approve its continuance. Results indicated that residency committee members believed they did provide mentoring to the first year teachers in agriculture. First year agriculture teachers perceived the mentor teacher to be the committee member who provided the most assistance during their first year of teaching. To the contrary, mentor teachers believed they did not assist with agricultural education issues or technical agriculture areas. Mentor teachers, administrators, higher education representatives, and first year agriculture teachers favored the continuance of this program; however, improvements could be made to strengthen the mentoring component. Recommendations included involving teacher educators as higher education representatives more and expand the residency committee to include an agriculture teacher as the mentor teacher. Special efforts to develop rapport beyond mandatory meetings and scheduled observations should be made. In addition, informal mentoring must continue to meet the first year agriculture teachers' needs.

Mentoring Community College Faculty and Staff: Balancing Contradictions of Informal Program Components and Formal Program Structure

While research indicates that community colleges believe mentoring is valuable, there is recent evidence that the career benefits from community college mentoring programs may be less than desired for participants and lower than in other sectors. Based on mentees' perceptions gained from interviews of 23 mentees from nine community colleges, the researchers developed a framework for community college mentoring programs that is contrary to frequent practice and that is seemingly contradictory in nature. The researchers propose a model for formal programs that is non-intrusive, yet it is one which provides visible and strong support by the college, with informal structural characteristics that enhance the career development of mentees in the community college setting. ********** Mentoring has been shown to be one of the most beneficial aspects of successful careers in business, industry, and education. During the past 25 years, organizations have recognized the benefits of mentoring and initiated formal workplace mentoring into their training and development programs (Daloz, 1999; Douglas, 1997). More recently, community colleges have recognized the value of providing formal mentoring programs, but little research exists to inform colleges of the sorts of programs to offer their faculty and staff (League for Innovation in the Community College, 2000; Van Ast & Linduska, 1995; Valeau, 1999). This study sought to illuminate the structural characteristics of formal mentoring programs that best support the perceived career benefits of mentoring. Most of the research on the benefits of mentoring has been conducted in the business sector with few empirical research reports on mentoring in academic settings (Wunsch, 1994). Of the mentoring research in education, most has occurred in the high school or in four-year colleges with little in the community college setting. Of the research in the community college, much has focused on informal mentoring of high-level leaders and less on formal programs for junior and mid-level faculty and administrators (Barhorst, 1997; Merriam & Thomas, 1986). There is empirical evidence, however, that community colleges value mentoring programs on their campuses (League for Innovation in the Community College, 2000) and that those who are mentored describe their relationships as providing both psychosocial and career benefits (Merriam & Thomas, 1986; Valeau, 1999; Van Ast & Linduska, 1995). Psychosocial benefits refer to aspects of mentoring such as role modeling, counseling, friendship, acceptance, and confirmation. On the other hand, career benefits involve such aspects as coaching, protection, sponsorship, challenging assignments, and such (Kram, 1985) (see Table 1 later in this article). These benefits are similar to those reported in research studies in other sectors of the workplace (Mullen, 1998; Noe, 1988; Olian, Carroll, Giannantonio, & Feren, 1988). That is, psychosocial functions enhance an individual's sense of competence and identity in the work role, while career functions enhance advancement by offering opportunities for exposure and guidance in career development. Although community colleges recognize the value of providing mentoring programs that promote both psychosocial and career benefits, mentees participating in formal community college mentoring programs report fewer career benefits than do mentees participating in formal and informal mentoring relationships in other educational and business sector programs (Chao, Waltz, & Gardner, 1992; Ragins & Cotton, 1999; Hopkins, 2003). Valeau's (1999) study of mentoring in California community colleges concludes that mentees would like more career benefits to result and also concludes that other program improvements are needed. Similar findings by Dunlap and Pence (1990) in the public education sector support the recommendation that more attention be given to program structures that support career benefits. …

A Critical Examination of Formal and Informal Mentoring Among Nurses

This article focuses on how mentoring among nurses can help them to better serve their profession and health care organizations to more successfully achieve their goals. Specifically, it addresses how formal and informal mentoring can yield benefits to both the nursing profession and health care organizations. It presents some advantages and disadvantages of formal and informal mentoring. Finally, it delineates some important considerations that should be carefully analyzed before establishing a formal program.

The Role of Interpersonal Comfort in Mentoring Relationships

This research examined interpersonal comfort as a potential mediating mechanism in mentoring relationships. Results indicated that interpersonal comfort mediated the relationship between gender similarity and protégé reports of career and psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to prediction, interpersonal comfort did not mediate relationships involving mentorship type (i.e., formal versus informal). However, we did find that informal mentoring and interpersonal comfort were positively associated with career mentoring. The research helps illustrate the important role that interpersonal comfort plays in the mentoring process.

Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation

Mentors and protégés from two formal mentoring programs were interviewed about the benefits associated with program participation, problems encountered in the program, and recommendations for program improvements. The most commonly reported benefits for protégés included learning, coaching, career planning, and psychosocial support. Mentors most frequently reported learning, developing a personal relationship, personal gratification, and enhanced managerial skills. Both groups identified a range of problems including mentor–protégé mismatches, scheduling difficulties, and geographic distance. Unique problems were also identified, including mentor neglect (by protégés), unmet expectations (by protégés), structural separation from the mentor (by protégés), and feelings of personal inadequacy (by mentors). Finally, suggestions for program improvement were identified such as clearer communication of program objectives, better matching, targeted participation in the program, and better program monitoring. Findings are discussed in terms of what we currently know about informal mentoring and implications for mentoring theory. Suggestions for mentoring practice are also discussed.

Informal mentoring relationships and the career processes of public accountants

Research has shown that informal mentoring relationships benefit the protégé, mentor and employing organisation. As such they have been of interest to public accounting firms. The functioning of these relationships in Big Eight/Big Five accounting firms has been investigated in the USA and more recently in Ireland. The career outcome of most interest has been turnover intentions. This paper reports the results of a questionnaire study of mentoring relationships in the Australian state of Queensland. The receipt of mentoring support by accountants is found to be associated with not only lower turnover intentions, but also higher job satisfaction, and lower intentions of female accountants to seek part-time employment. The impact of the organisational context in which these relationships are initiated and cultivated is also investigated. The size of the accounting firm and the national culture of the country in which the firm operates, appear to have some bearing on mentoring experiences.

Making the most of informal mentoring

One of the goals of many formal mentoring programs is to bring the organization to the point where the majority of mentoring is carried out informally, without the need for substantial, structured support from HR and elsewhere. The problem, in most cases, is that completely informal mentoring – where people come together without guidance and without clarity about the mentoring role – is a hit and miss affair. Not only is the quality of the relationships highly variable, but the pairings tend to exclude people who do not fit the mould, by virtue of their gender, race, culture or some other differentiating factor.

A Research Note on the Two Faces of Informal Mentoring: Diminishing and Enhancing Role Conflict

Prior research has reported inconsistent results regarding whether public accounting mentoring diminishes or enhances protege role conflict. The current study develops theoretical propositions identifying the contradictory effects of informal mentors on protege role conflict: diminishing overall role conflict, but enhancing (increasing) mentor-based inter-sender role conflict. The hypotheses are tested using responses from 552 practicing CPAs. The results from structural equation modeling suggest that public accounting informal mentoring has both positive and negative attributes. While informal mentors provide information that clarifies proteges' organizational roles, informal mentors also impose role demands that conflict with other role senders. Further statistical tests show the relevance of mentor-based inter-sender role conflict: an association with negative job outcomes, including lower job satisfaction and higher turnover intentions.

Informed consent skills in internal medicine residency: how are residents taught, and what do they learn?

Obtaining informed consent is an essential skill in internal medicine (IM). The authors' informal observations and formal testing revealed deficiencies in residents' informed consent skills. This study evaluated how residents acquire informed consent skills and how informed consent skills are addressed in Canadian IM residency programs. A questionnaire was delivered to all 16 IM program directors in Canada, asking how informed consent is taught and assessed. At the University of Saskatchewan IM residency program, residents were assessed through an objective structured clinical examination station, written examination, and a self-assessment questionnaire. No consistent approach to teaching or evaluating informed consent skills exists within Canadian IM programs. Program directors and residents identified informal mentoring by residents as an important learning modality. Although residents performed well in discussing procedural indications and techniques, discussing risks was inadequate. Residents focused on general and minor risks but avoided discussing serious risks and had difficulty discussing the frequency of complications. Residents lacked a structured approach to assessing capacity and often assessed only comprehension. Residents were unfamiliar with concepts such as material risk, implied consent, and therapeutic privilege. Explicit training in informed consent skills is urgently needed. Informal mentoring must be recognized as an important training method for informed consent and supported by appropriate teaching and evaluation strategies to ensure that resident-instructors do so effectively.

Factors Related to Mentor Reports of Mentoring Functions Provided: Gender and Relational Characteristics

In this study we examined the relationship between mentor gender, protege gender, mentorship characteristics (e.g., mentorship type, mentorship duration, mentor experience), and mentoring functions provided as reported by mentors. Drawing on research regarding diversified mentorships and interpersonal relationships, we proposed that mentoring effectiveness would vary as a function of the gender of the mentorship participants and the characteristics of the relationship. As hypothesized, several interesting gender differences emerged from the data. Male mentors reported providing more career mentoring to their proteges, whereas female mentors reported providing more psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to expectations, mentors in informal mentorships did not report providing more mentoring than did mentors in formal mentorships. The findings demonstrate the importance of examining mentoring from the perspective of the mentor.

The WIT cohort: A case study of informal doctoral mentoring

Concerns about the quality and value of doctoral studies continue to be expressed by various constituencies. Cohort mentoring and professional relevance have been identified as significant opportunities for modernising doctoral education. This case study responds to the need for doctoral reform by exploring the process and outcomes of mentoring on a self-formed educational leadership cohort, a grassroots organisation called the WIT (writers in training) cohort. Analysis of this innovation from the members' perspectives suggests that the cohort mentoring experience serves to enhance individual success and improve a particular graduate context. Results indicate that benefits were gained in three areas of professional growth: developing a sense of identity and belonging, support for learning and attaining dreams and experiencing a faculty-student support model.

Informal Mentors and Role Models in the Lives of Urban Mexican‐Origin Adolescents

This article draws on a larger study investigating the social networks and help‐seeking practices of Mexican‐origin youth in San Diego, California. The authors present the subset of findings concerning adult, nonfamily informal mentors and role models. Using survey data, interviews, and a critical ethnographic perspective grounded in sociological theory, the article examines participating adolescents' critical understandings of these significant figures their lives, the rare and fortuitous nature of these relationships, and their empowering influence in the lives of urban, low‐income, immigrant Latino youth. Linkages to social capital and developmental theories are offered.

Learning to Teach Offshore: Pre-Departure training for lecturers in transnational programs

The internationalisation of higher education in Australia over the past two decades has brought about dramatic changes in Australian universities. Growing numbers of international students have enrolled in Australian universities and the number of students studying offshore has also increased dramatically. While considerable material has been published on the ramifications of the increased numbers of onshore international students studying at Australian universities, there is relatively little published research on the specific challenges facing academics participating in offshore programs. The aim of this project was to examine the current pre-departure cross-cultural training taking place in the business faculties of three Australian universities in order to gain a better understanding of the adequacy of the support given to Australian academics teaching offshore. Twenty staff involved in offshore education were interviewed as part of this project, including academics with considerable offshore teaching experience, senior academic managers and cross-cultural trainers. While these institutions engage in little formal preparation for offshore teaching, a great deal of informal mentoring and briefing is taking place. We consider the implications of the new quality assurance framework for Australian universities, which requires that institutions be able to demonstrate the ways in which they ensure the quality of teaching and learning. Under this new system, universities are bound by the Australian Vice Chancellors' Committee's guidelines for the provision of education to international students. It appears that Australian universities will need to establish more formal mechanisms to ensure that offshore staff are adequately prepared for offshore teaching posts.

A longitudinal study of work-based, adult–youth mentoring

Using a longitudinal design, this study explored the relation of urban high school student attitudes toward school, work, and self-esteem beliefs to work-based mentoring, mentor satisfaction, and employment status. Participants included high school students taking part in a formal work-based mentoring program, students who established informal mentoring relationships at work, students who worked without a mentor, and students who were not employed during the academic year. While there were no significant group differences in the measures at the start of the year, results at the end of the year showed that students in the formal mentoring program believed more strongly that school was relevant to work than those who worked without a mentor. Students with mentors had higher levels of self-esteem than those who did not work. Students who were highly satisfied with their mentors had higher levels of self-esteem and believed more strongly that school was relevant to the workplace than students who did not work. The implications of these results are discussed and future research areas are identified.

Youth mentoring: The American Dream comes to the UK?

This paper examines the ways in which the North American experience has influenced youth mentoring programmes in the UK and focuses on the theoretical assumptions about young people which have underpinned mentoring interventions. A more critical approach to this North American 'legacy' is required if the value of this form of intervention is to be accurately assessed. The paper argues that an over-reliance by mentoring interventions on developmental paradigms has curtailed their capacity to take account of the wider social context in which young people are making their transitions to adulthood. It is suggested that alternative theoretical frameworks which address the complexity and multiplicity of youth transitions hold more promise for understanding and theorising the role of mentoring in the UK setting. A recent Scottish study of informal mentoring processes attempted to open up these theoretical possibilities by using a framework which recognised young people as active participants and agents. This study revealed that a range of models of mentoring may be in place within informal mentoring relationships. The paper argues that findings from this study demonstrated a need for a more critical approach to the 'classic notion' of mentoring as exclusively a one to one relationship between an adult and a young person. Since mentoring is now a highly popular form of intervention with 'socially excluded' young people these questions about the theoretical base for the concept require urgent attention.

The outcomes of effective career discussion at work

This article examines the outcomes that resulted from career discussions experienced by 104 employees. Employees appeared to benefit from discussions about their careers with individuals in a wide range of roles. Many effective career discussions produced multiple outcomes, and some of these were long-lasting. The most common types of outcomes experienced were a clearer view of future direction, self-insight, awareness of opportunities, and feeling reassured or better about self or work. The findings highlight the need for future research into the effectiveness of career interventions to take more account of multiple outcomes and how these evolve over time. Also, organizations need to encourage informal career discussions and informal mentoring.

Fostering Librarian Leadership Through Mentoring

The aim of effective mentorship is to promote the development of the learner (Daloz, 2004). This article highlights my own leadership journey, sharing how mentoring has given my professional life direction, taught me passion, and how mentoring has fostered the development of my leadership skills. I emphasize several of my mentoring experiences and conclude by sharing deductions I have drawn as a direct result of these experiences. Finding a Professional Direction I began my library career in 1981 as a paraprofessional at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. I chose this job hot as a career path, but because the position provided free tuition benefits that would help me accomplish the most important life goal I had at that time, obtaining a bachelor's degree. I realized within the first 3 months of the job that a career as a professional librarian was not only highly desirable, but also a perfect match for my quest to work in an educational setting, my aspiration to serve others, and my requirement of working in a profession that actively supported lifelong learning. Without realizing what was happening, I was being mentored! My supervisors, coworkers, and other librarians in my organization all encouraged me to consider librarianship as a profession. I now realize that I was provided, through their informal mentoring, additional opportunities that would eventually spark my interest in becoming a librarian and eventually, in becoming a library leader. Learning That Mentoring Is a Passionate Cycle of Support Upon the acceptance of my first professional position, I once again was provided significant learning and leadership opportunities through informal mentoring. These experiences included encouragement to professionally publish, opportunities to continue my formal education, advice on how to become involved with local and national library associations, and administrative support to attend leadership training seminars. These positive experiences helped me realize that the only limitations to my career, and to the development of my leadership skills, were those that I choose to accept. I knew from their actions that my informal mentors were passionate about out profession and passionate about ensuring that the leadership for our profession prosper. I experienced how mentoring can make a difference in another person's life, and experienced how an informal mentoring network creates a passionate cycle of support. My informal mentors freely shared stories from their own mentoring experiences, and instilled in me the desire to continue the cycle of support when I was ready to take the next very important step. As I developed from a neophyte librarian to a middle-management librarian, I made the effort to continue the cycle of informal mentoring by encouraging my library student workers to consider a professional career in librarianship. As my skills developed and my reputation grew as a leader in local and national library associations, I continued the cycle of informal mentoring by encouraging and providing opportunities for the newly hired librarians at the institutions where I was employed. In addition to learning that effective mentoring is about creating a passionate and continuous circle of networking support, I also began learning informally about effective leadership skills by watching my mentors. I observed that good leaders constantly challenge themselves and found opportunities for self-improvement and was impressed that they acknowledged their leadership weaknesses and took time to participate in training that would help them improve these weaknesses. I noticed that leaders are good listeners and that no matter how poorly my mentors were treated, they always treated others with professionalism and respect. More importantly, I saw how my mentors were great leaders because they took the time to make personal and professional connections with people. …

Formal Mentoring Systems: An Examination of the Effects of Mentor/Protégé Cognitive Styles on the Mentoring Process

In informal mentoring systems, protégés seek help from other organizational members between whom there is often mutual attraction and rapport resulting in a level of interpersonal comfort between the members of the relationship. Because of the apparent benefits for both employee and organization, many human resource managers now attempt to establish formal mentoring systems in which mentors and protégés are brought together systematically. It is recognized, however, that assigned mentoring relationships are not usually as beneficial as those that develop informally. There appears, therefore, to be a need to match partners in some way. It has been suggested that a better grasp of psychological factors is necessary if this is to be achieved. One personality variable that may be partly responsible for shaping the overall effectiveness of such relationships is cognitive style. The present study, involving 53 mentor–protégé dyads, examined the effects of the cognitive styles of mentors and protégés on the process of formal mentoring. Data were collected from both partners in each dyadic relationship, and findings suggest that in dyads whose mentor is more analytic, congruence between the partners’ cognitive styles enhances the quality of their mentoring relationships. Cognitive style was also found to work indirectly through its influence on other variables to enhance mutual liking and psychosocial and career mentoring functions. Gender composition was also found to have a significant impact on the mentoring process. Dyads with female mentors and male protégés were found to be the least favourable combination.