Informal Linkages Research Articles

Developing technological capabilities for Industry 4.0 adoption: An analysis of the role of inbound open innovation in small and medium‐sized enterprises

To keep up with rapid technological change, firms are pushed to acquire new competencies and resources, often leveraging the external networks in which they are involved. The paper examines how firms' engagement in inbound open innovation (OI) enables the adoption of Industry 4.0 (I4.0) technologies in small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) through the deployment of technological capabilities. We combine the OI and dynamic capabilities frameworks to assess how the absorption of knowledge from different actors impacts the necessary technological capabilities for adopting I4.0 technologies. The capabilities are categorized in technological sensing, seizing and reconfiguring. The study is based on in‐depth case studies of two selected SMEs from the footwear industry. The cases show that engaging in external collaborations, particularly with universities, pushes SMEs to renew the bundle of competencies underlying their technological capabilities. However, this effect is influenced by the OI modalities adopted by both companies. While in Company A OI takes place through a broader array of formal and informal linkages that contribute to the exploration of distant knowledge bases and the experimentation of more diverse technologies, such as the Internet of Things, Company B relies on informal networking concentrated in its own field of specialization for the adoption of manufacturing‐specific I4.0 solutions, such as automated robots and 3D printing.

Governing the network: Trust in E-waste informality in India

The informal sector occupies a significant position and proportion of modern-day configuration of global e-waste recycling networks. The internal governance in the work and life of informal waste actors is crucial to sustain the spatial coordination of used goods trade. Using the global production network (GPN) framework, this paper investigates the value of trust and social networks in organising the predominantly informal e-waste processing activities in India. Based on an extensive primary research conducted between 2011 and 2013 in Delhi and a subsequent revisit to the field in 2018 and 2021, it provides a much-needed analysis of the robust informal linkages in the political economy of e-waste in the country. The GPN literature has not sufficiently explored the significance and interplay of trust in informal governance relationships in waste management. Drawing from the rich scholarship on trust and social network to analyse the empirical evidence, this research argues that inter-personal ties, shared norms and clustering practices nurture trust that is fundamental for constructing and regulating informal business endeavours. It contributes to the GPN understanding of vertical and horizontal network governance by demonstrating how the cohesive power of trust vitalises the recycling landscape and consolidates the position of informality therein despite recurring legislative endeavours to stifle informal operations.

Suicide Prevention Interventions and Their Linkages in Multilayered Approaches for Older Adults: A Review and Comparison.

Multilayered approaches to suicide prevention combine universal, selective, and indicated prevention interventions. These approaches may be more successful in reducing suicide rates among older adults if they link these layers more systematically: that is, if the programs are designed so that interventions at a lower level facilitate involvement at a higher level when appropriate. This study aimed to examine the effect on suicide rates of the structure of multilayered approaches, and in particular the types of interventions and the connections or linkages between them. We also wished to consider any different effects by sex. A literature search used PubMed and PsycINFO to identify systematic reviews of interventions in this age group. From the reference lists of these articles, we identified controlled studies assessing the impact of a multilayered program on suicide incidence among older adults. We were particularly interested in initiatives linking different kinds of prevention interventions. We found three relevant systematic reviews, and from these, we identified nine eligible studies. These included seven non-randomized controlled studies from rural areas in Japan (average eligible population: 3,087, 59% women, average duration: 8 years). We also found two cohort studies. The first was from a semi-urban area in Padua, Italy (18,600 service users, 84% women, duration: 11 years). The second was from urban Hong Kong, with 351 participants (57% women) over a 2-year follow-up period. We used a narrative synthesis of these studies to identify five different multilayered programs with different forms of connections or linkages between layers. Two studies/programs (Italy and Hong Kong) involved selective and indicated prevention interventions. One study/program (Yuri, Japan) included universal and selective prevention interventions, and the final six studies (two programs in northern Japan) involved linkages between all three layers. We also found that these linkages could be either formal or informal. Formal linkages were professional referrals between levels. Informal linkages included advice from professionals and self-referrals. Several of the studies noted that during the program, the service users developed relationships with services or providers, which may have facilitated movements between levels. All five programs were associated with reduced suicide incidence among women in the target groups or communities. Two programs were also associated with a reduction among men. The study authors speculated that women were more likely to accept services than men, and that the care provided in some studies did less to address issues that are more likely to affect men, such as suicidal impulsivity. We therefore suggest that it is important to build relationships between levels, especially between selective and indicated prevention interventions, but that these can be both formal and informal. Additionally, to reach older men, it may be important to create systematic methods to involve mental health professionals in the indicated prevention intervention. Universal interventions, especially in conjunction with systematically linked indicated and selective interventions, can help to disseminate the benefits across the community.

Agents of Representation: The Organic Connection between Society and Leftist Parties in Bolivia and Uruguay

Parties are central agents of democratic representation. The literature assumes that this function is an automatic consequence of social structure and/or a product of incentives derived from electoral competition. However, representation is contingent upon the organizational structure of parties. The connection between a party and an organized constituency is not limited to electoral strategy; it includes an organic connection through permanent formal or informal linkages that bind party programmatic positions to social groups’ preferences, regardless of the electoral returns. This article analyzes how the Movimiento al Socialismo (Movement toward Socialism, MAS) in Bolivia and the Frente Amplio (Broad Front, FA) in Uruguay developed two different forms of relationship with social organizations that result from the interplay of historical factors traceable to the parties’ formative phases and party organizational attributes. Party organizational features that grant voice to grassroots activists serve as crucial mechanisms for bottom-up incorporation of societal interests and demands.

Innovation strategy of latecomer firms under tight appropriability regimes: The Indian pharmaceuticals industry

As emerging economies joined the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and became signatories to the TRIPs (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement, their enterprises face a new institutional environment governed by a tight appropriability regime. A tight appropriability regime demands that latecomer firms (LFs) from emerging economies transform from being technology followers to knowledge producers and innovators. We test if this hypothesis is valid for developing countries which have a different set of initial endowments and institutions. The central research question guiding this study is how LFs are adapting their innovation practices in response to an institutional shift from a weak to a tight intellectual property regime. We harbour a few hypotheses that predict how a shift from a weak to a tight appropriability regime is likely to affect innovation practices of LFs. Using econometric analysis on a panel data from 480 Indian firms from 1994 to 2012, the innovation practices of LFs are compared over two time periods – corresponding to a weak and tight appropriability regime. Discriminant Analysis and LOGIT tests suggest that institutional transition increases the propensity of LFs to engage in exploratory innovation and develop their human capital and codified knowledge base. But what is interesting and contrary to what was predicted, LFs appear to be less likely to forge formal and informal linkages with foreign firms under the tight IPR regime as compared with a weak IPR regime.

Bilateral S&T Organisation as an Innovation Intermediary: Case Study of Indo-French Cell for Water Sciences

Different theoretical models and empirical studies increasingly highlight the importance of networks and strategic linkages in research and innovation and commericalisation process. This has motivated policy action at different levels for creation of organisations that can facilitate the varied types of networks and linkages among the actors in the innovation system. These organisations are expected to perform various types of activities that bridge user needs and supply side, skill and human resources, financial support, business and innovation strategy, knowledge about new technology and in implementation. These varied types of organisations now are defined under ‘Innovation intermediary’. Innovation intermediary is contextualised within the national, regional or sector innovation systems. These systems are influenced by global innovation networks, production and innovation value chains and through varied types of formal and informal linkages. One of the ways a country develops formal linakges with other countries are through bilateral organisations. Bilateral S&T organisations is generally seen as a long term strategic partnership between countries that can positively contribute towards strengthening innovation ecosystem of each of the partnering countries. Can the innovation intermediary thesis help us to understand the bilateral organisations in this context? Or in other words, can a bilateral S&T organisation be seen as an innovation intermediary between two partnering countries? The paper investigates this proposition by examining the influence of Indo-French Cell for Water Sciences (IFCWS) in strengthening the water innovation ecosystem of the two countries namely India and France. A singular case study can be too limited to draw any strong conclusion. However, within this limitation we argue that this study can be useful for policy makers in looking at bilateral organisations as an innovation intermediary between two countries and for innovation scholars to examine this organization more deeply within innovation systems studies

Village Leaders, Dual Brokerage and Political Order in Rural China

AbstractDrawing on an ethnographic study in two counties in Hunan province, this article explores how political brokerage has contributed to political order in China by facilitating contentious and non-contentious bargaining between the government and ordinary people. To account for the changing role of village leaders in rural politics, the article develops a concept of dual brokerage. This concept not only recognizes formal and informal linkages between village leaders and the two principals – the government and the community of villagers – but also underscores the interactivity between the linkages. We contend that despite the tensions between village leaders’ roles as state agents and as village representatives, these two roles in the reform era tend to be mutually beneficial. Under such an institutional configuration, village leaders in China in the reform era have strong incentives to act as dual agents and can make policy implementation more flexible and the use of state force more moderate. A comparison between the trilateral interactions before and after the tax reform in 2005 confirms that whether village leaders can effectively act as dual agents has a significant impact on the quality of rural governance in China.

Innovation linkages in societies with a high power distance

Innovation linkages are one of the important conditions for innovative development of the country. A confirmation of this is the calculation methodology of the Global Innovation Index, which takes them into account. The article explores the problem of innovation linkages formation in societies with a high power distance, which are characterised in tolerance for so cial inequality. The methodological basis of the study embraces the concept of stakeholders and the theory of inter-organizational networks in combination with the approach of cross-cultural research of power relations. To describe the structure and influence of power distribution on in novator’s behaviour the researcher uses the method of classification of innovation linkages’ par ticipants into actors and actants. To identify societies with a high power distance and which are relatively successful in innovative development the author draws on the comparative analysis of countries. Using the cases of some of them (China, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates) the author shows the mechanisms of formation and development of innovation linkages: 1) exclu sive (or external) development through the use of foreign innovation infrastructure; 2) informal linkages based on the values of humanism and paternalism; and 3) co-optation of institutional centers of responsibility for change. The study may be of interest both to enterprises for develop ing strategies to promote their innovative solutions, and to government agencies that solve the problem of weak innovation linkages.

Ties' repeatedness, partners' social value, and alliance portfolio performance in emerging economy: The moderating roles of firm-government linkages

Repeatedly collaborating with previous partners or following peers' decisions are two primary strategies employed by emerging economy firms in selecting their alliance partners. As a result, the alliance portfolios of firms often feature a high level of ties' repeatedness and partners' social value—the extensiveness of a firm's partners being selected by other players in the industry. However, few studies examine whether these two features can result in superior alliance portfolio performance. Leveraging data collected from 566 fund product distribution alliances initiated by 62 fund companies in a 5-year period (2007–2011), we find that ties' repeatedness does not significantly improve alliance portfolio performance. In fact, a high level of social value of the current partners produces a negative effect. However, firms' linkages to governments can change the performance consequences of these two features. As a category of formal government–firm linkages, state ownership improves the positive effect of ties' repeatedness on alliance portfolio performance, while it strengthens the negative effect of partners' social value. As a category of informal linkages, political ties weaken the positive effect of ties' repeatedness on alliance portfolio performance but cannot significantly alleviate the negative effect of the social value of current partners.

The illusion of independence: Spun-off firms’ risk-taking as a function of status and attachment to the parent firm

This paper examines the post-divestiture behavior of spun-off firms. Drawing on the spin-off literature and middle-status conformity theory, we argue that spun-off firms—as newly independent and publicly traded firms—tend to limit their risk-taking behavior to match the expectations of a crucial audience, i.e., security analysts. Following the logic of middle-status conformity theory, we hypothesize that firms with mid-level status are particularly susceptible to analysts' pressures, whereas high- and low-status firms are free to take greater risks. Crucially, however, we propose that this relationship is less pronounced for spun-off firms that are more attached to their parent firms, as formal and informal linkages between these two types of firms can endure beyond the separation and limit spun-off firms' independence. Using a dataset of 102 spin-off transactions occurring between 1995 and 2010, we find empirical support for a U-shaped relationship between spun-off firms' status and risk-taking. This relationship is attenuated when spun-off firms are more attached to their parents. We contribute to the spin-off literature by demonstrating that a spun-off firm's post-divestiture behavior is determined by the capital market audience's expectations and the attachment to the parent firm. In so doing, we also contribute to the literature on middle-status conformity theory by identifying a boundary condition of the theory. Additionally, we make a methodological contribution by combining ideas from the spin-off and institutional theory literature to develop a particularly comprehensive measure of attachment.

Integrating oral health care services into primary care in Quebec

Although integrated care is drawing considerable attention from health care policy makers, little is known about integration of oral health care services into primary care in Quebec. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compile information and compare the aspects of primary oral health care in two public health care organizations. An environmental scan was carried out in one rural and one urban primary health care organizations in Quebec. Data were collected from organizations' websites, operational documents, observational notes on facility visits, primary care meeting minutes, online pages of professional orders and face to face interviews (N=74) and focus groups (N=5), between November 2016 and October 2018. Thematic and Prior's documentation analyses were used to analyse the data. Three themes were identified: normative aspects of integrated care delivery, integration trajectories, and integration initiatives. In both organizations, the integration of oral health into primary care rooted in public health sectors and dental teams were the key players. While urban center showed informal linkages between dental and non-dental primary care providers, the rural organization succeeded in coordination processes, even though these were also informal. The majority of primary oral health care services are delivered in the public health sectors and the sustainability of integration initiatives in other primary health care sectors remains to be demonstrated. A better management of resources, as well as partnerships between public health care organizations and universities, could contribute to this integration.

Non-Governmental Organizations and the Policy Process: A Reflection on the Ekiti State Gender Equality Policy, 2011

The policy process is a complex one that requires formal and informal linkages between governmental and other actors. Collaboration between the government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) is pivotal to the attainment of the goals of gender equality, which is to provide equal opportunities for men and women in the society. Despite the importance of this policy, studies show that certain factors in a policy environment might inhibit such alignment. Using the Ekiti State Gender Equality Policy of 2011 as a case study, this paper examined the importance of NGOs to the policy process of gender equality policy in Ekiti State. To achieve the objectives, an online survey was carried-out among twenty-two randomly selected workers of NGOs whose Organizations have previously worked on gender-related policies in Ekiti. Besides, Key Informant Interviews were conducted with two civil society experts. Data elicited were presented and analyzed using tables, frequency counts, percentage scores and the descriptive method. Findings showed that NGOs were adequately involved in the formulation and adoption stages of the Policy. However, such involvement was not fully imported into the implementation stage. This was because of the change in government in the State in 2014, which affected the continuity of the policy. This further validates the argument that the implementation stage is often the grave-yard of many good policies in Africa. It was concluded that if Ekiti State wishes to retain its frontline position in the promotion of the gender equality, it must ensure an improved synergy with NGOs and policy continuity.

Glimpse into an army at its peak: notes on the Somali National Army in the 1960–80s

ABSTRACTBagayoko, Hutchful, and Luckham correctly argue that the structures, characteristics, and operating methods of official security institutions in Africa have been somewhat neglected, with a lack of much recent research. The Somali National Army (SNA) sits among these lacunae. Its formal structures can be used as a skeletal starting point and springboard to start to draw the network diagrams that chart informal linkages. This is why recent declassification decisions by U.S. intelligence bodies, coupled with period documents released to the UK National Archives, hold significance in helping us understand early hierarchical SNA arrangements. They show the steady build-up in size of the force, to 1987, to about the time the civil war began to fragment the state.

Partner Selection and Alliance Portfolio Performance in Emerging Markets

Repeatedly allying with previous partners or following peers’ decisions are two strategies of firms to reduce uncertainty in their alliance partner selection decisions. However, whether or not these two strategies lead to superior alliance portfolio performance is open to question. Leveraging data collected from 566 fund product distribution alliances initiated by 62 fund companies in a five-year period (2007-2011), we found adopting these two strategies does not benefit alliance portfolio performance. Partner repeatedness, which reflects to what extent that a firm relies on its previous alliance experience, cannot improve alliance portfolio performance significantly. Social value of current partners, which reflects the extent that a firm relies on peers’ choices in partner selection, even imposes a negative effect. The study also examines how firms’ linkages to governments change performance consequence of the two partner selection strategies. As a category of formal government-firm linkage, state ownership enhances the positive effect of partner repeatedness on alliance portfolio performance, while it strengthens the negative effect of partner social value. As a category of informal linkage, CEOs’ political ties weaken the positive effect of partner repeatedness on alliance portfolio performance but cannot significantly alleviate the negative effect of social value of current partners.

Technological constraints to firm performance

Purpose Manufacturing and services SMEs in Africa face challenges and constraints exacerbated by ineffectual government policies, environmental turbulence and the near absence of institutional support. The purpose of this paper is to investigate if informal linkages and formal cooperation are helping firms to overcome constraints to uptake of technological innovations in Nigeria. Design/methodology/approach The paper is based on quantitative data obtained from structured interviews of 631 Nigerian firms. These firms were selected using stratified random sampling from a total population of 18,906 manufacturing and services companies in the national database obtained from the National Bureau of Statistics. Findings The result of the binary logistic regression indicates that while informal linkages appear to be insignificant, formal inter-firm cooperation is an effective moderator of barriers to technological innovations. Research limitations/implications The paper focusses only on technological, rather than non-technological, innovations. Practical implications The paper recommends that, in addition to other interventions to promote diffusion of technological innovations, governments should give priority to interventions that support formal cooperation among SMEs. Originality/value Previous studies have generally looked at the impact of cooperative networks on firms’ innovation uptake. This paper provides original insights into the “how” of cooperative impact, specifically with respect to helping SMEs to overcome constraints. The paper also delineates formal cooperation from informal linkages.

Linkages between the Agricultural Development Programme and the Local Government Agricultural Department in Southeast, Nigeria

The study assessed the inter-organizational relationship between the agricultural development programme (ADP) and the local government agricultural department (LGAD) in implementing participatory extension policy in Southeast, Nigeria. Two sets of questionnaires were used in collecting data from purposively selected 260 staff of the ADP and LGAD personnel involved in the execution of agricultural extension projects of the two agencies. Data were presented and analysed using descriptive statistics. Greater proportion (41.5%) of the ADP staff and LGAD personnel were within the age range of 40-49 years. About 87% of ADP staff and 90% of LGAD personnel were males. There was existence of formal and informal linkage between the two agencies that should be strengthened by governmental effort for more extension coverage. Keywords : Linkage, Agricultural Development Programme, Local Government Agricultural Department

International field placements: The models Australian social work programmes are currently using

International field placements have become increasingly common in Australian social work programmes. This article looks at the models of organising international placements, in sending or receiving social work students. Four such models are identified: informal linkages for individual students, linkages between Australian social work programmes, formalised university to university agreements and formalised university to agency agreements. Although there appears to be a preference for formalised ongoing relationships between institutions in different countries, drawing on all four models as appropriate and feasible will enable everyone involved in international placements to achieve the most positive practice possible.

Forest conflicts and the informal nature of realizing indigenous land rights in Indonesia

Despite a widening legal scope for indigenous rights, the invocation of indigeneity to claim land rights rarely empowers marginalized communities. This article develops an explanation for why this formal recognition of community rights actually has little substantive impact on local struggles over land in Indonesia. Employing almost two years of fieldwork on how rural communities employ indigeneity-based land claims in South Sulawesi, it argues that claims for land rights on the basis of indigeneity are settled not simply on the basis of law, but also on that of the relative bargaining positions and the character of informal linkages between communities, their mediators and local authorities. Indigenous status therefore must be understood as a privilege most likely to be obtained by those groups with relatively strong connections to influential state actors. In contrast, communities that are in conflict with local state actors tend be excluded from obtaining the status of indigeneity and hence the state is likely to deny them their land rights claims.

Agglomeration and Informality: Evidence from Peruvian Firms

This paper contributes to the emerging literature investigating agglomeration externalities in developing countries. It is the first paper to estimate how agglomeration externality generation and reception varies for formal and informal firms by source. Using establishment level data, we find evidence of both significant agglomeration economies and diseconomies associated with the interaction of formal and informal firms. In spite of regulatory restrictions for formal and informal linkages, formal establishments benefit from an increase number of informal suppliers but not generally from an increase in formal supplier density. On the other hand, the number of workers in informal establishments demanding similar skills causes a negative effect on productivity. For establishments in some industries, increasing the number of formal and informal establishments in the same industry has a negative effect on productivity.

Biomass local production systems and their managing – alternative to rural development in Slovakia

Local production systems (LPS) focused on biomass usage represent a viable alternative to rural development, which can contribute to solve its socio-economic problems in Slovakia. The main objective of this paper was to propose a general framework for the functioning of biomass LPS in rural areas and to summarize the main points for smooth running of biomass LPS projects aimed at the resource base, method of obtaining energy from biomass, energy production cycle and a dialogue with inhabitants of municipalities where biomass LPS are to be located. Lack of experience in implementing such projects was the root cause of problems in Banská Bystrica region. Therefore, access to information, experiences form other countries and the development of appropriate formal and informal linkages are necessary for knowledge transfer and play an important role in managing biomass LPS.