Influence Of Birth Order Research Articles

Examining the Effect of Birth Order on Neuroticism and Extraversion among Adolescents and Young Adults

This study investigates the influence of birth order on personality traits, specifically Neuroticism and Extraversion, among adolescents and young adults. A total of 120 participants aged between 14-25 years completed a survey distribution via Google Forms. The sample was evenly split into two groups: Elder children (First-born) and Younger children (Last-born), each comprising 60 individuals. The personality traits were assessed using Neuroticism and extraversion subscales of the Neo-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI, Costa & McCrae, 1992). Data analysis involved the use of a two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test to compare the distribution of Neuroticism and Extraversion scores between the two birth groups. The results indicate that there is no statistically significant difference in the distribution of Neuroticism and Extraversion traits between elder and younger children. These findings contribute to understanding how birth order is not the sole influence on neuroticism and extraversion among adolescents and young adults.

Personality Factors as Predictors of the Level of Personality Functioning in Adolescence: Examining the Influence of Birth Order, Financial Status, and Sex

This study aimed at examining the correlation between personality factors measured by the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure - which defines the personality in terms of: Humility-Honesty H, Emotionality E, Extraversion X, Agreeableness A, Conscientiousness C, and Openness to experience O - and the level of personality functioning (LOPF). It also examines HEXACO’s predictability of LOPF in adolescence in terms of sex (male, female), birth order (eldest child, middle child, youngest child, and the only child) and financial levels (above average, on average, below average). The sample included 1450 students from both secondary schools and universities all over Lebanon. Participants responded to the HEXACO PI-R-60 scale of personality structure, and Level of Personality Functioning LOPF 2.0 that pinpoints to the degrees of dysfunctionality in both intrapersonal and interpersonal domains; participants also answered other demographic questions. Data were analyzed through SPSS 23 by calculating Pearson correlation coefficients, running ANOVA and post Hoc Hochberg GT2 and Dunett t tests to explore variance among subgroups. Independent T- tests were also utilized to determine sex differences. Multiple linear regression was utilized to determine the predictability of LOPF by HEXACO. Results show that HEXACO factors are inversely correlated to LOPF except for Emotionality; no significant differences in LOPF exist between males and females; on the financial level, differences in LOPF are found only between middle group and below average group, and in terms of birth order, between the only child and the middle child. It is also depicted that LOPF can be predicted by HEXACO factors in different ways. Implications of the study are discussed in the light of the related theories.

The influence of birth order on anxiety disorders in emerging adulthood: A longitudinal study.

Introduction: The current longitudinal scholarly research analyses the impact of birth order on children's psychological and mental health status.
 Objective: The birth order indicates the paramount effect on an individual's psychological, physiological and behavioural transformation.
 Methodology: This research study enrolled 150 individuals aged 18 to 25 years to assess their anxiety status in association with birth order. The study applied a mixed-method approach involving structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focal group discussions.
 Results: The statistical analysis yields that birth order is statistically inversely related to the level of anxiety, having weak statistical evidence of significance. It predicts that the latterly born (younger) children experience fewer episodes and severity of anxiety as compared to the elder ones.
 Conclusion: Family support is a critical factor in buffering anxiety among children. The study suggests the parental consideration of birth order to provide a balance of attention and care to overcome the psychological adverse outcomes among children. Further scholarly attention is required to study the association among these dynamics with multiple approaches for further analysis of associated aspects.

Birth Order Determining the Perception of Parenting Style among Female Adolescents in Relation to their Family Type

The study of parenting style and practices initially focused on their influence on young children, but eventually revealed their long-term implications on an individual's lifetime, particularly during the crucial and transitional period of adolescence. The process of parenting is unique to each individual and varies for each child within a family. This variation may be influenced by birth order, since parents tend to behave different to each child. This is because each person's individuality plays a role in the interpersonal interactions they develop. The objective of this study is to examine the influence of birth order (first, middle, and last) on adolescent girls’ perception of their parents’ style of parenting, in both joint and nuclear family environments, in a comparative manner. The experiment encompasses a cohort of 100 female adolescent students, typically ranging in age from 16 to 19 years, who have exactly two siblings. The data collection instrument utilized was the Parenting Style Scale developed by Madhu Gupta and Dimple Mehtani (2017). Additionally, a self-designed questionnaire was used to gather demographic information from the participants, including age, birth order, family type, and other relevant factors. The findings indicated that eldest daughters perceived their parents as employing a democratic/authoritative parenting style, while middle-born daughters perceived their parents as employing an autocratic/authoritarian approach. On the other hand, youngest daughters perceived their parents as adopting a permissive parenting style. No significant disparity was observed in the perception of parenting styles among female adolescents from nuclear and joint family backgrounds simultaneously.

THE ORDER OF CHILDBIRTH IN THE FAMILY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (USING THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PEDAGOGY OF ALFRED ADLER AS AN EXAMPLE)

The article reveals the relationship between the birth order of a child in a family and their personal characteristics. The state of development of the investigated topic in pedagogical science is analyzed. It has been proved that this is a rather significant and relevant scientific problem of the research field of modern pedagogy. S. Freud also claimed that the position of a child among siblings is of great importance in later life, and older and younger children have a number of identical characterological traits. A. Adler indicated the connection between the order of a child’s birth and the formation of his personality, highlighting the ordinal positions of the child in the family. A. Adler discovered that people who occupy similar positions in the family in order of birth have very similar psychological characteristics. He argued that the order in which a child is born in a family is quite an influential factor for a person’s entire destiny, including his career and social relations.
 The dependence and interrelationship of birth order with such factors as biological differences, intelligence, peculiarities of personality development, mental illnesses are substantiated. The general characteristics of the positions of the only, first, middle and youngest child in the family are explained. Peculiarities of the family situation of development, typical problems, and personal characteristics of each of the specified positions are considered.
 Our research is dictated by the need to develop such an approach to personality development, which considers it not only as formed under the influence of exclusively genetic factors, but also takes into account the social prerequisites of his development. Emphasis is placed on the fact that the influence of birth order should be studied through the prism of other factors, which involve taking into account the historical and cultural context of upbringing, as well as considering the family as a system.

Does birth order or gender influence students’ attitude toward mathematics in junior secondary schools in eket akwa ibom state, nigeria?

This study examined influence of birth order and gender on junior secondary school students’ attitude toward Mathematics in Eket southern Nigeria. Ex-post facto research design was used. A sample of 1000 students was selected by stratified, random sampling procedures. Data was collected with a structured Questionnaire; with a Cronbach Alpha reliability estimate of .77. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Independent t- test were used for statistical test of the hypotheses at .05 level of significance. The result showed that first-borns had more positive attitude toward Mathematics than their other siblings (ANOVA: F= 16.096; p=0.000). Male students showed more positive attitude to Mathematics than their female counterpart (t=6.110; p=0.001). Study concluded that birth order and gender influenced students’ attitude to mathematics Eket Nigeria. It was recommended that Mathematics teaching and evaluation strategies should be gender-sensitive so as to minimize gender-related bias and inequity.

The influence of birth order and sibling age gap on children’s sharing decision

ABSTRACT The potential influences on children's sharing decision caused by birth order and sibling age gap were examined. A third-party resource allocation task was adopted to examine five- to six-year-old children's sharing decision when they expected a protagonist to allocate resources between two recipients with different social relationships. Children with sibling age gap less than three years tended to allocate resources with a closer recipient more often than those with sibling age gap more than three years. When siblings were more than three years apart in age, children allocated resources between a sibling and a friend, first-born children were more likely to choose a sibling than second-born children. However, when siblings' age gap was within three years, second-born children, in turn, were more willing to share with a sibling than first-born children. These results were attributed to the sibling relationships and the development level of the Theory of Mind.

Born innovator? How founder birth order influences product innovation generation and adoption in entrepreneurial firms

Individuals’ birth order may be a fundamental, engrained human early-life and family-domain experience that shapes their behaviors in adulthood. However, limited knowledge is available about the influence of birth order on individual innovation preferences. By integrating sibling rivalry theory and social identity theory and analyzing 186 high-technology entrepreneurial firms, we find that founder birth order is positively associated with product innovation generation (later-born founders pursue more innovation generation than do earlier-born founders) but is negatively associated with product innovation adoption (earlier-born founders generate more innovation adoption than do later-born founders). Further, both the age spacing between a founder and closest-born sibling and founder social identity moderate the relationships. Thus, our findings advance understanding in the literature on birth order and on entrepreneurial innovation.

Influence of Birth Order on Personality and Adjustment in Young Adults

Birth order refers to the order in which a child is born in the family. This order differs within families and affects an individual’s life. The present study aims to assess the influence of birth order on personality and adjustment in young adults. Two psychological tools NEO-FFI and Adjustment Inventory for College Students (AICS) were used to measure the variables. 120-college going students (60 first born and 60 second born) in the age group of 18-25 years were selected from different colleges of Delhi-NCR. The results showed that first born and second born have no difference in terms of personality traits. The study also found that there is no difference in adjustment of first born and second born. Gender differences were found in first born male and female in personality and adjustment. Whereas in second born male and female only slight differences were seen.

604 The Relationship between Birth Order and Sleep Patterns in 6-Month-Olds

Abstract Introduction The influence of birth order has been investigated in many areas of child development, but few studies have examined its relationship with infant sleep; those that have yield contradictory findings. Moreover, nocturnal parental practices may differ depending on the number of children, but these characteristics are rarely studied. This study aimed to compare nocturnal parental practices and sleep patterns of first-born to non-first-born 6-month-olds. Methods The mothers of fifty-two 6-month-olds completed a 14-day sleep diary to record their infant’s sleep. The following variables were averaged: total nocturnal sleep duration (in minutes), longest consecutive sleep duration (without interruption; in minutes) and number of nocturnal awakenings. Independent t-tests were used to compare each sleep variable between first-borns (n = 21) and non-first-borns (2nd, 3rd or 4th born, n = 31). Chi-square tests were used to compare parental sleep practices (breastfeeding frequency and infant sleep location) between first-borns and non-first-borns. Results First-borns had a longer consecutive nocturnal sleep duration (417.83 ± 142.42 vs. 310.08 ± 118.23; p < .01) and fewer nocturnal awakenings (1.69 ± 1.07 vs. 2.57 ± 1.09; p < .01) than non-first-borns. However, first-born and non-first-born infants did not differ in terms of total nocturnal sleep duration (p > .05). Breastfeeding frequency and sleep location differed as a function of birth order: 57.9% of first-born infants were exclusively breastfed, compared to 89.7% of non-firstborn infants (χ2 (1, N = 52) = 6.56; p < .05). Furthermore, 20.0% of first-borns slept in the parents’ room, compared to 56.7% of non-first-borns (χ2 (1, N = 50) = 6.62; p < .05). Conclusion First-born infants had longer periods of consecutive sleep and fewer nocturnal awakenings than non-first-borns; however, birth order was not associated with maternal reports of total nocturnal sleep duration. These results suggest that non-first-borns have more fragmented sleep. Moreover, sleep-related practices also differed between mothers of first-born and non-first-born infants. A study conducted in a larger sample and using objective sleep measures could clarify whether these different sleep patterns reflect specific nocturnal parental sleep-related practices, or if the presence of other children in the home play a role in infant sleep consolidation. Support (if any) SSHRC, FRQS

The effects of birth order and family size on academic achievement, divergent thinking, and problem finding among gifted students

The current study explored the influence of birth order and family size on academic achievement, divergent thinking (DT), and problem finding (PF) with a sample of 156 gifted male and female Arab students (M= 12.21 years, SD= 1.75). Regarding academic achievement, it was found that first-borns possessed higher grade point averages (GPAs) than did other-born children. Family size was also related to academic achievement-participants from smaller-sized families had significantly higher GPAs compared with gifted students from middle- and large-sized families. As for the influence of birth order and family size on both DT and PF, a multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences for birth order and the interaction between birth order and family size in the originality dimension of PF. Non-significant differences were found concerning family size. The follow-up analyses of variance showed that later-born gifted students scored higher than first-, second-, third-, and fourth-born children in PF originality. Later-born gifted students who scored higher on originality were from smaller families. No significant influences for birth order and family size were found concerning fluency for both DT and PF as well as DT originality. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

ОСНОВНЫЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ СИБЛИНГОВЫХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ

An overview of the areas of sibling research that laid the foundation for the modern understanding of sibling issues is presented. Attention is focused on the importance of sibling relationships for personal development, socialization and adaptation, and on the existing shortage of relevant work at the same time. The main stages of the development of sibling theory in their continuity are considered, starting from the first studies devoted to the search for a connection between the order of birth and achievements and dated to the end of the 19th century, to the term “individual environment” developed by the genetics of behavior in the second half of the 20th century. It emphasizes the role of A. Adler, who has made sibling a central feature of family life and personal development and has long determined the future direction of empirical family research. It shows a gradual shift in the interest of researchers from studying the influence of birth order, gender, and age intervals between siblings on personal characteristics. In this connection, an analysis of the nature of sibling relations on the basis of reciprocity and complementarity, undertaken by Dunn, is given. Early works on the jealousy and rivalry of children in the family, the study of the impact of parental differential treatment on them, as well as the influence of child characteristics on siblings in families with sick children are considered.

Drug Abuse: Prognostic Role of Sibling Position in Bengali Culture in India: AStudy in Kolkata, India

Background: It is commonly believed that birth order is an important determinant of personality, intelligence, and economic success. A number of recently published popular books, each with its own approach to the topic tend to support the belief. In keeping with published studies, we noted strong evidence of race and ethnicity effects. In addition, we find that adolescents who lived with both of their parents are much less likely to have used tobacco, alcohol, or marijuana, whereas household income seems to have an effect on female, but not male, substance use. Growing up in an urban area is associated with an increase in the probability of having smoked marijuana and, for females only, an increase in the probability of having drunk alcohol. We find that children with older siblings are, on average, more likely to have used tobacco, alcohol, and canabis than their firstborn counterparts controlling for family size, age, and the other factors in the model. Males with older siblings are 6.2 percentage points more likely to have drunk alcohol and are 5.1 percentage points more likely to have tried marijuana than their firstborn counterparts. With this intention we observed the influence of birth order of the individual among the siblings on the course and outcome of the drug abused subject in the eastern part of India that is known at West Bengal, and its inhabitant called Bengalis. Materials and methods: The data were collected on the basis of retrospective study of the records of 225 consecutive Bengali heroin and brown sugar dependents attending at Ashadeep De-Addiction Centre in Kolkata. All the subjects were male, the age spanned 15-35 years; and hailed from low or middle socio-economic status. All the subjects were treated for detoxification and were followed up while they were undergoing the counselling sessions. The subjects were followed up for little over one year. Results: In Bengali culture the eldest, youngest and the only son, are usually considered to be of much valued position. No such extraordinarily value is attached to any other intermediate ranks. In Bengali, the eldest one usually learns to sacrifice, to tolerate and to be loyal to the hierarchical value-system, whereas the youngest one usually enjoys the indulgence, given not only by parents but also the other elder siblings, and often exhibit poor frustration tolerance and strong pleasure-seeking attitude. The first-born in having a better prognosis, and less drop-out than the lastborns, are expected to be more amenable to therapy than the latter. Conclusion: We are fully aware that the cultural influence is much more varied, extensive, intricate and complex. In such broader perspective, the present study is only a modest attempt. However, we hope that this will throw some light on such a vast subject.

Ghana's national health insurance, free maternal healthcare and facility‐based delivery services

AbstractGhana implemented the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in 2005 and introduced free maternal healthcare (FMH) into the scheme in 2008. These reforms aimed at improving the utilization of healthcare, especially for expectant mothers. Using data from the 2008 and 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys (GDHS) with a sample of 8,081, this study employed multivariate probit and conditional mixed process (CMP) estimators to analyze the NHIS enrolment and the use of facility‐based delivery services among expectant mothers within the context of Sustainable Development Goal 3 in Ghana. The influence of birth order on these policies has also been explored. Before and after analysis was used for the effect of the FMH on NHIS enrolment and the use of delivery services while CMP was used for the effect of NHIS on delivery services. It is concluded that higher birth order reduces the likelihood of NHIS enrolment and health facility delivery. Moreover, the FMH policy has improved both NHIS enrolment and facility‐based delivery. Finally, the NHIS policy proves to be a reliable factor to induce utilization of facility‐based delivery services. It is recommended that maternal health education at antenatal care visits should be enriched with potential consequences and complications associated with multiple births. The National Health Insurance Authority (NHIA) should provide registration desks for expectant mothers at health facilities.

Birth order and paediatric allergic disease: A nationwide longitudinal survey.

Environmental factors seem to be related to the incidence of allergic disease. Children with a later birth order are often exposed to environments, where pathogens and endotoxins can be found, and thus have a higher risk of developing infectious diseases. Therefore, birth order is regarded as an indicator that reflects post-natal environment. However, longitudinal studies are limited on this subject. This study sought to elucidate the relationships between birth order and allergic disease. From a nationwide longitudinal study that followed children born in 2001 (n=47015), we selected doctors' visits for 3 types of allergic disease-bronchial asthma, food allergy and atopic dermatitis-from infancy to 12years of age and conducted binomial log-linear regression analysis to evaluate the associations between birth order and these diseases. We adjusted for the child and parental factors and estimated risk ratio (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for each outcome. The associations between birth order and bronchial asthma were diverse; later birth order increased the risk in early childhood, but decreased the risks during school age. For example, the adjusted RR comparing third-born or higher and first-born children was 1.19 (95% CI, 1.05-1.35) between 30 and 42months of age, but was 0.76 (95% CI, 0.65-0.89) between 10 and 11years. Later birth order was generally protective for food allergy but increased the risk of atopic dermatitis. The influence of birth order depended on the type of allergic disease and the childhood period. Childhood is unique in terms of physical and immunological development, and the immune response to the post-natal environment in childhood appears to be heterogeneous.

Clinical Experience on Hearing Screening in Twins and Triplets: A Retrospective Study.

Twin or multiple pregnancies often have neonatal complications. Common complications include low birth weight, respiratory distress, neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission (>5days) and low APGAR score especially on second twin. (1) To compare referral rates of newborn hearing screening in twins and triplets between risk and non-risk babies for hearing loss, (2) to determine the effects of birth order on referral rates in twins and triplets. A retrospective study was carried out from the case records of the neonates enrolled in the referral based NICU hearing screening program during April 2013 to December 2014 at Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chennai. 1405 neonates (723 males and 682 females) in the age range of 3-28days were screened during this period among which 76 were twins (38 pairs) and 9 were triplets (3 sets). We classified them further into non risk and risk babies among twins according to the Joint Committee for Infant Hearing (JCIH) recommendations. A dual step hearing screening protocol was used to screen the neonates. They were initially tested with distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) then with automated auditory brainstem response (AABR) before discharged from the hospital. Out of 76 (100%) twin babies 43 (56.58%) babies had one or more risk factors for hearing loss. Most common risk factors were low birth weight, premature birth, mechanical ventilation >5days, hyperbilirubinemia, infections, ototoxic medications and family history of hearing loss. Each risk factor was observed in equal proportion in 1st born and 2nd born twins. 12 (15.76%) risk babies and 11 (14.47%) non risk babies failed in DPOAE testing. Out of 9 triplets babies (3 set) 3 babies had risk factors for hearing loss. One baby in 2nd born babies group failed AABR screening. Referral rates were slightly higher in 2nd born twins when compared to 1st born twins in DPOAE testing. Chi square test did not reveal any significant association between referral rates with risk factors and birth order (p>0.05). The referral rates in twins are higher than the total population screened. There is some influence of birth order on the referral rates in twins. It needs to be further investigated on larger population.

Briley Brothers: The Influence of Birth Order, Sibling Relationship Quality and the Normalization of Violence on Adolescent Delinquency

This literature review examines different factors that influence adolescent delinquency such as sibling relationship quality, birth order, and normalization of violence. The review uses a psychosocial approach to observe how these factors can affect an adolescent’s behavior. This research will contribute to the field of Psychology by emphasizing that outcomes associated with adolescent delinquency can be traced to specific points. The main points of this research are further supported by the Briley brothers’ case study, siblings involved in violence: homicide. A strength of this research is that, although the studies do not specifically focus on the Briley brothers’ case, the main point of each article can be connected back to the case. An array of research has been conducted indicating the negative impacts birth order and sibling relationship can have in development and the Briley brothers illustrate the outcomes that can occur. The Briley brothers case demonstrated how parental influence may not have been a contributing factor to the murders; instead, the psychosocial issues within the brother’s stem from the manipulation of the eldest-Briley brother. Adolescent delinquency is an important topic and must be researched further in order to reduce delinquent behavior among adolescents. Further research may be used to create preventive plans to reduce adolescent delinquency.

Family background and age at menarche among secondary schoolgirls in Nigeria

BACKGROUND: Menarche signifies the onset of menstruation and is one of the milestones in women's lives. AIM: The aim of the present study was to elucidate the influence of birth order, family size, parents' level of education, and body size parameters on age at menarche among samples of Nigerian secondary schoolgirls. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study of age at menarche of Nigerian secondary schoolgirls (n = 600) aged 11–18 years was done. The effect of birth order, family size, and parents' educational attainment on age at menarche was analyzed. Data pertaining to menarche and family background were collected using a self-administered structured questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS version 22. RESULTS: Mean age at menarche was 13.54 ± 0.90 years. Father's level of education showed statistical significant effect on the mean age at menarche (P 0.05). The result showed that firstborn girls have earlier age at menarche (12.82 ± 0.68 years) than later-born girls (14.09 ± 0.58 years, P CONCLUSION: The results suggest that birth order, family size, and parents' level of education have influence on age at menarche.

Birth order and height development in early childhood: empirical evidence for twenty-first-century Flanders

Height is generally accepted as an indicator of well-being and the development of children in early childhood. Historical research shows a negative association between the height of individuals and their birth order. This is frequently explained by the resource dilution hypothesis. However, we question the negative effect of birth order on growth patterns in contemporary Flanders, where the fertility decline has stabilized and policies supporting the family are well established. Therefore, the first aim of this study is to examine the influence of birth order on early child development – in terms of height – in contemporary society. In addition, we control for socioeconomic and sociodemographic parameters. We use a longitudinal dataset of almost all births in Flanders between 2006 and 2009 (N = 291,230), together with check-ups (N = 2,949,169). All height measurements are standardized to conform to the international World Health Organization growth standards. Several statistical techniques are used to estimate a six-step model. Results show that the effects of birth order are significant at the 5% level, but explain very little of the variation in height increase. This contribution improves the understanding of the present-day link between birth order and early child development in contemporary Flanders. In light of historical trends, our results indicate that the effect of birth order is consistent but particularly small during the first three years of early childhood. Part of the explanation for the changing role of birth order at the macro level can be found in the fertility decline, the general improvement in standards of living and the development of the welfare state.

The influence of birth order and number of siblings on adolescent body composition: evidence from a Brazilian birth cohort study

The aim of this study was to estimate the association between birth order and number of siblings with body composition in adolescents. Data are from a birth cohort study conducted in Pelotas, Brazil. At the age of 18 years, 4563 adolescents were located, of whom 4106 were interviewed (follow-up rate 81.3 %). Of these, 3974 had complete data and were thus included in our analysis. The variables used in the analysis were measured during the perinatal period, or at 11, 15 and/or 18 years of age. Body composition at 18 years was collected by air displacement plethysmography (BOD POD®). Crude and adjusted analyses of the association between birth order and number of siblings with body composition were performed using linear regression. All analyses were stratified by the adolescent sex. The means of BMI, fat mass index and fat-free mass index among adolescents were 23.4 (sd 4.5) kg/m², 6.1 (sd 3.9) kg/m² and 17.3 (sd 2.5) kg/m², respectively. In adjusted models, the total siblings remained inversely associated with fat mass index (β = - 0.37 z-scores, 95 % CI - 0.52, - 0.23) and BMI in boys (β = - 0.39 z-scores, 95 % CI - 0.55, - 0.22). Fat-free mass index was related to the total siblings in girls (β = 0.06 z-scores, 95 % CI - 0.04, 0.17). This research has found that number of total siblings, and not birth order, is related to the fat mass index, fat-free mass index and BMI in adolescents. It suggests the need for early prevention of obesity or fat mass accumulation in only children.